T     n  -^'^■■^ 


:l 


;^ 


INTERNATIONAL  SERIES, 

EDITED   BY 

LIEUT.-COL.  ARTHUR  L.  WAGNER, 

Assistant  Adjutant-General,  U.  S.  Army ;  late  Instructor  in  Art  of  War  at  the 
U.  S.  Infantry  and  Cavalry  School,  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kansas. 


THE 

Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics, 

BY 

F.  BUROT, 

Medecin    principal    de  la    Marine,   Officier  de  la  Legion  d'honneur, 
Officier  d'Acadeniie,  Laur^at  de  I'lnstitut, 

AND 

M.  A.  LEGRAND, 

Medecin  de  1'^  classe  de  la  Marine  Chevalier  de  la  Legion  d'honneur, 
Laureat  de  I'lnstitut. 


TRANSLATED    BY 

CAPTAIN  GEORGE  W.  READ, 
9th  U.  S.  Cavalry. 


No.  7. 


KANSAS   CT""  ■    : 

'-BE!  ivISHING  c 

le  Street. 


PfOLOGY 
UBRARy 


Copyright,  1S99, 
By  HUDSON-KIMBERLY  PUBLISHING  CO. 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 


TABL.EI    OF    GONTEwNTS. 

Page. 

Introduction 

Chapter  I.— HABITATION ^^ 

I.— Location  of  Troops  in  the  Colonies 1^3 

II.— Situation  of  Barracks  and  Posts 2o 

2S 
III.— Colonial  Habitations 

Chapter  II.— ALIMENTATION ^^ 

I.— Nutritive  Value  of  the  Ration 34 

II.— Solid  Aliments '^^ 

III.— Liquid  Aliments ^^ 

IV.— Potable  Water •" ^^ 

Chapter  III.— CLOTHING  AND   EQUIPMENT 58 

I.— Rules  of  the  Hygiene  of  Clothing 59 

II.— The  Different  Articles  of  Clothing. . ., 61 

III.— Maintenance  of  Clothing 66 

Chapter  IV.— MILITARY  LIFE 68 

I.— Occupations  of  the  Soldier 68 

II. — Fatigue  Duties  and  Work 72 


III.— Bathing. 


80 


IV. — Amusements  and  Repose 81 

Chapter   V.— MEDICAL  SERVICE 81 

I. — Medical  Permniirl 81 

II. — Hospitals  and   Infirmaries 90 

III.— Materiel  of  the  Health  Service 92 

IV.— Repatriation  of  the  Sick 94 

Chapter  VI.— SANITARY   POLICE 104 

I.— Commission  of  Hygiene 104 


-85169 


4  Tahle  of  Contents. 

Page. 

II. — Administrative  Measui'es 106 

III. — Hygienic  Measures 112 

Chapter  VII.— SPECIAL  MEASURES  FOR  EXPEDITIONS 120 

I.^Colonial  Expeditions 121 

II.— Selection  of  Troops 124 

III. — Convoys  and   Supplies 128 

IV. — Sanitary  Service 134 

V. — Hygienic  Conduct  of  Operations 164 

Chapter  VIII.— HYGIENIC     PRINCIPLES     OF     A     COLONIAL 

ARMY 174 

I.— Recruitment 177 

II. — Organization 188 

III. — Departure  for  the  Colonies 205 

IV.— Length  of  Sojourn 206 

Conclusions 209 


PREFACE. 

The  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  Militarv  Hygiene  on 
the  part  of  officers  in  command  of  troops  has  long  been 
recognized,  and  was  painfully  emphasized  during  the  war 
with  Spain  by  the  heavy  losses  of  many  volunteer  organiza- 
tions that,  remaining  in  home  camps,  did  not  see  a  hostile 
flag  or  hear  a  hostile  shot.  Not  only  is  Military  Hygiene  a 
subject  for  serious  consideration  when  our  troops  are  sta- 
tioned in  a  climate  to  which  they  are  accustomed,  but  it 
becomes  doubly  so  when  they  are  called  upon  to  serve  in 
tropical  regions  whose  climatic  and  hygienic  conditions  are 
new  and  strange,  and  where  no  enemy  is  so  formidable  as 
the  endemic  diseases. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  Cuba.  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippines  are  not  unlike  those  of  Madagascar,  Tong-King, 
and  Mai^tiniijue;  and  the  observations,  experience,  and  de- 
ductions of  the  medical  officers  of  the  French  Army  in  those 
regions  are  accordingly  deserving  of  careful  attention.  It 
is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  anything  good  or  bad  for  a 
French  soldier  will  be  beneficial  or  injurious  to  an  American 
soldier  serving  under  like  conditions,  and  the  editor  there- 
fore ventures  the  hope  that  by  placing  this  translation  in 
the  hands  of  his  brother  officers  he  may  be,  in  some  degree, 
conferring  a  benefit  upon  our  military  service. 

Headquarters  Department  of  Dakota, 
St.  Paul,  ^linn.,  June  la.  1S09. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics 


INTRODUCTION. 


Much  has  been  wiitten  of  late  years  upon  (ffilonial  hy- 
giene. Numerous  authors  have  tried  to  state  precisely  the 
rules  to  be  followed  in  order  to  preserve  the  health  of  the 
soldier  in  hot  countries.  It  would  suffice  to  refer  to  their 
works,  if  we  did  not  hope  to  present  new  ideas  and  to  ex- 
plain, in  concise  form,  the  ensemhie  of  the  measures  capable 
of  protecting  the  soldier  against  the  diseases  which  Pro^ 
fessor  Brouardel  has  so  happily  called  the  maladies  evitables. 

The  ideas  which  flow  from  our  preceding  studies  permit 
us  to  face  the  danger  and  combat  it  rationally. 

Among  the  means  of  protection  and  defense,  the  whole- 
of  which  constitutes  the  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the- 
Tropics,  it  will  not  be  surprising  if  we  accord  first  place  to 
those  which  seem  to  us  more  particularly  shown  to  protect 
the  European  soldier  from  telluric  action.  The  soil  is  the 
most  important  factor,  for  it  is  the  receptacle  of  the  germs 
which  provoke  the  principal  endemic  disease:  paludism. 
Water  comes  in  second  place;  it  bears  the  microbes  of  dys- 
entery, of  cholera,  of  typhoid  fever;  it  is  through  it  that 
epidemics  are  propagated. 

There  are  other  morbid  causes  which  it  is  well  not  to 
neglect.  The  sun  aggravates  most  of  the  diseases  and  pro- 
duces some  of  them.     The  effect  of  high  temperatures,  of 


8  I)ilrodi(clion. 

humidity,  of  cold,  of  iusufficieut  or  bad  nourishment,  of 
overwork,  is  only  too  real  not  to  attract  our  most  particular 
attention.  The  scarcity  of  medical  attendance,  the  vicious 
organization  of  the  sanitary  service  and  of  urban  hygiene 
in  the  colonies,  must  also  l)e  taken  into  account. 

The  causes  inherent  to  the  connti'y  itself  are  not  the 
only  ones  which  produce  mortality  among  the  colonial 
troops;  there  are  others  peculiar  to  the  individual  who  ar- 
rives for  the  first  time  in  a  tropical  country,  whether  to  re- 
main in  garrison  or  to  take  part  in  an  expedition. 

If  the  soldier  is  too  young,  if  he  has  not  a  robust  consti- 
tution, he  will  be  an  easy  i)rey;  but  if.  on  the  contrary,  he 
has  been  selected  strictly  with  a  view  to  the  trials  he  will 
have  to  bear,  he  will  be  able  to  become  refractory  to  the 
morbid  influences.  There  arises  in  this  connection  the 
much  debated  question  of  the  recruitment  and  organization 
of  the  colonial  army.  We  propose  to  discuss  it  with  all  the 
care  it  merits. 

Humanity  and  military  interest  are  in  accord  in  de- 
manding, among  the  contingents  destined  for  service  in  our 
possessions  beyond  the  seas,  a  preparatory  selection,  which 
has  not  yet  been  made.  There  should  no  longer  be  allowed 
to  go,  even  voluntarily,  by  the  side  of  the  veterans  of  the 
Sahara,  of  the  Soudan,  and  of  Chinese  India,  young  French- 
men entirely  disarmed  in  the  face  of  that  enemy  called 
the  torrid  climate.  All  should  be  professionals,  inured  to 
military-  life,  capable  of  prom])t  and  easy  adaptation  Jo  the 
colonial  existence,  and  suri-ounded.  in  addition,  by  all  the 
j^uaranties  necessary  to  the  pi-eseryation  of  their  health. 

It  seems  to  us  ])ossible  1o  group  in  eight  chapters  all 
the  hygienic;  principles  ajiplicable  to  the  colonial  troops,  in 
the  following  order:  1st,  Habitation;  2d,  Alimentation; 
3d,  Clothing  and  Equipment;     4th,  Military  Life;     Stli,  Med- 


Introduction.  9 

ical  Service;  6th,  Sanitary  Police;  7th,  Special  Measures 
for  Expeditions;  8th,  Hygienic  Principles  of  a  Colonial 
Army. 

It  is  a  question  of  preparing  a  veritable  Code  of  Health, 
and  our  ambition  will  be  satisfied  if  we  succeed  in  showing 
the  absolute  necessity,  in  the  colonies,  of  a  rigorous  hygiene 
for  both  individuals  and  communities. 


University 


CHAPTEK  I. 

Habit  \.tion. 

It  has  been  said  by  J.  Roeliard  that  an  expense  incurred 
in  the  name  of  hygiene  is  an  economy.  This  is  a  truth 
which  cannot  be  too  well  borne  in  mind  when  it  is  a  question 
of  providing  the  colonial  soldier  with  a  lodgment  to  protect 
him  against  telluric  influences,  inclemencies,  and  foreign 
contaminations. 

To  keep  in  good  health  in  a  warm  country,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  be  well  housed  and  suitably  installed.  There  are 
few  of  our  colonies  where  it  has  been  possible,  from  the 
beginning,  to  prepare  a  good  installation  for  our  troops,  and 
there  are  none  where  hygienic  reasons  have  exclusively 
determined  the  choice  of  the  site. 

At  Martini(jue,  Fort-de-France  is  built  upon  a  marsh, 
while  all  around  there  are  heights  much  better  adapted  for 
the  establishment  of  Europeans.  Saiut-Pierre  is  built  upon 
a  contracted  shore  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains;  the  pollu- 
tion of  the  soil  breeds  dysentery. 

In  Guadeloupe,  Pointe-a-Pitre  is  built  upon  marshy 
ground  and  at  the  bottom  of  a  funnel;  the  uuhealthfulness 
of  this  town  is  well  known.  Basse-Terre  is  better  situated 
and  has  the  advantage  of  having  in  its  vicinity  Camp  Ja-^'ob, 
utilized  so  happily  for  the  health  of  soldiers  and  officials. 

French  Guiana  has  presented,  at  certain  times,  a  worse 
sanitary  condition  than  that  of  Dutch  and  British  Gui  mas, 
jjlaced  in  the  same  conditions  as  to  soil  and  climate;  this 
difference  can  be  attributed  only  to  insufficient  drainage^ 
and  to  the  imperfection  of  the  habitations  reserved  for 
Europeans. 


12  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

In  Senegal,  the  town  of  Saint-Louis,  built  upon  an  isle 
of  sand,  has  long  been  deprived  of  potable  water  of  good 
(luality. 

Gor^e  is  only  an  islet,  relatively  healthy.  Dakar  can 
become  a  healthy  town  with  an  abundance  of  water.  The 
post  of  Thies,  situated  on  the  metaled  road  from  Cayor,  is 
hygienically  placed  at  an  altitude  of  ()5  meters,  far  from  all 
marsh,  and  is  one  of  the  best  established. 

Our  establishments  in  the  Soudan.  Guinea.  Cote-d'- 
I voire,  B^nin,  and  Kon'go,  leave  much  to  be  desired. 

In  Indo-China,  great  progress  has  been  made.  The 
town  of  Saigon,  built  over  arroyos,  has  become  habitable, 
thanks  to  a  good  system  of  canals  of  potable  water,  to  large 
clearings,  to  the  numerous  plantations,  to  better-u'ulerstood 
constructions,  and  to  the  wholesomeness  of  the  soil.  Tong- 
King  will  profit  by  the  lessons  of  the  past  and  will  become 
a  prosperous  colony;  if  the  heights  are  infested  with  palu- 
dism,  while  the  Delta  is  destitute  of  malaria,  the  reason  is 
that  the  Delta  is  admirably  cultivated  and  the  heights  still 
uncultivated. 

In  New  Caledonia,  the  town  of  Noumea,  built  upon  a 
marsh,  is  exempt  from  paludism.  but  too  often  visited  by 
typhoid  fever  and  dysentery,  which  find  in  the  geological 
formation  causes  favorable  to  their  development.  Tahiti 
is  a  volcanic  island  which  would  gain  in  salubrity  if  the 
habitations,  more  hygienically  constructed,  had  be;'n  buiU 
a  few  hundred  meters  above  the  sea-level. 

At  RcMiiiion.  I  he  |>:ilu<lisMi  made  its  appearance  about 
Ihirty  years  ago  and  shows  itself  with  fretiuency  in  the 
towns  of  the  littoral.  And  yet.  upon  the  jilateau  of  the 
luouiitiiiu  Saint-Denis,  in  a  maivelous  iind  easily  accessible 
place,  at  an  altitude  of  40(J  meteis.  there  is  ;\  site  adapted  for 
a  sui>erb  town. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  tie  Tropics.  13 

In  our  new  possession,  Madagascai-,  all  points  of  the 
coast  are  unwholesome;  this  has  long  been  known.  The 
heights  are  habitable  and  capable  of  colonization,  and,  now 
that  we  are  masters  of  them,  we  would  be  guilty  not  to 
utilize  them. 

In  the  colonies,  more  than  elsewhere,  when  it  is  a  ques- 
tion of  habitation,  the  first  care,  when  possible,  is  to  select 
the  site  judiciously;  in  the  second  place,  the  best  situation 
for  barracks  and  posts  should  be  studied;  finally,  it  is  im- 
portant to  regulate  in  all  its  details  the  installation  of  the 
buildings. 

§  I.     Location  of  Troops  in  the  Colonies. 

Our  troops  in  the  colonies  usually  live  in  the  towns  and 
our  colonial  towns  are  almost  always  located  upon  the  l.t- 
torah  There  the  troops  are  continually  exposed  to  attacks 
of  paludism,  inevitable  in  the  lowlands  adjacent  to  the 
mouths  of  great  rivers;  to  yellow  fever,  the  endemic  of  the 
shores;  to  the  possible  importation,  through  commercial 
relations,  of  all  the  plagues  coming  from  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America;  typhus,  cholera,  etc. 

In  the  great  colonial  centers,  they  are  also  exposed  to 
the  diseases  of  the  civil  population,  European  and  native. 

The  English,  those  masters  in  the  art  of  colonization, 
have,  for  a  long  time,  understood  the  necessity  of  removing 
their  soldiers  from  the  littoral,  and  to  this  measure  should 
be  attributed,  in  great  par-t,  the  diminution  of  mortality 
among  them. 

The  Dutch  have  imitated  them,  and  seem  to  have 
derived  important  advantages  from  this  hygienic  measure. 

It  is  proper,  in  this  point  of  view  as  in  many  others,  to 
profit  by  experience  and  to  utilize  the  exami)les  set  us  by 
powers  possessing,  like  ourselves,  an  extensive  colonial 
domain. 


14  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

ENGLISH    STATIONS. 

We  cannot  do  better  than  to  take  a  glance  at  the  hy- 
gienic programme  carried  out  in  the  colonies,  by  our 
neighbors  across  the  Channel. 

British  India. — In  Hindoostan,  the  English,  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  have  established  Health  Citi('f<.  which  they  also 
designate  Summer  Stations. 

The  point  demonstrated  is  that  the  pure  air  cf  the 
heights  has  preserved  the  lives  of  thousands  of  soldiers. 

Tables  of  mortality  prepared  for  European  soldiers 
prove  how  much  easier  acclimatization  has  become.  To- 
wards the  middle  of  this  century  the  European  troops  serv- 
ing in  India,  although  better  cared  for  than  during  the  wars 
of  the  past  centui-y.  lost  each  year  one  man  in  fifteen  :  but 
since  then  the  rate  of  mortality  has  constantly  decreased. 

India  is  one  of  the  hottest  colonies  of  the  earth ;  the  line 
of  greatest  mean  heat — the  equator — pas-ses  immtdiately 
to  the  south  of  the  peninsula  and  the  isothermal  line  ()f  24 
degrees  bends  around  the  northern  plains,  running  along 
the  first  swellings  of  the  Himalayas.  The  annual  variation 
from  one  extremity  of  India  to  the  other,  nioie  than  .3.(100 
kilometers  in  length,  is  only  .5  degrees  centigrade,  if  the 
diversity  of  altitudes  is  disregarded  and  all  stations  are 
brought  to  the  sea-level. 

To  obviate  the  serious  inconvenience  of  these  high 
temperatures  during  the  summer  and  the  depressing  and 
febric  a<;tion  of  the  coast  climate,  the  English  have  estab- 
lished, near  the  large  towns  of  the  littoral,  secondary  towns. 
which  are  used  .as  summer  residences.  These  are  not, 
I»roperly  speaking,  sanatoria  for  the  cuie  of  invalids,  but  are 
stations  of  preservation. 

On  the  northern  frontier,  the  Himalayan  chain,  a  for- 
midable barrier  between   India   and  Thibet,  ofifers   on    its 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  (lie  Tropics.  15 

Indian  slope  many  favorable  points  for  the  establishment 
of  health  cities  and  important  military  posts.  In  southern 
India,  the  Western  and  Eastern  Ghauts,  gradually  rising  in 
terraces,  from  the  narrow  littoral  to  the  ledge  of  a  plateau 
1.000  meters  high,  and  joined  together  by  the  transversal 
chain  of  the  Nilghiris  or  Blue  Mountains,  present  etiually, 
at  a  variety  of  altitudes,  numerous  sites  capable  of  being 
utilized  as  summer  resorts  and  sanitary  stations.  The 
question  arises  at  the  outset  of  connecting  the  selected 
points  with  the  ports  and  principal  centers  by  easy  means 
of  communication  and  of  making  it  a  study  to  eventually 
secure  the  development  of  these  nascent  towns. 

PRINCIPAL    STATIONS    IN    INDIA. 

Altitude. 

Presidency  of  Bombay :       I'oona 503  meters. 

"      '  ''  Matheran 740  '' 

"                       "  Mahabalechwar  or 

Malcompet 1347 

"  of  Bengal:         Darjeeling 2250  '' 

"  of  Madras:        Bangalore 924  " 

"                      "  Outakamonnd.   .   .   .2200  '* 

Punjab:  Dharmsala 1950  " 

»  Dalhousi 2243  " 

Simla 2160 

Koumaon:  Almora 1815  " 

Indian  slope  of  the  j  Ranikhet 1650  ' 

Central  Himalayas:       (  Landoui- -19i) 

Ceylon:  Nouvera-Elia.    .    .    .1890  '• 

Pooncu  with  an  altitude  of  563  meters,  connnands  the 
region  of  the  sources  of  the  Bhima,  and  is  one  of  the  large 
cities  of  India ;  from  June  to  November,  when  the  monsoon 
blows  and  the  rain  falls  in  torrents,  it  becomes  the  tem- 
porary capital  of  the  presidency  of  Bombay. 

The  station  Matlieran  is  situated,  at  an  altitude  of  749 
meters,  upon  a  butte  completely  separated  from  the  chain 


16  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

of  the  Ghattes  by  the  erosion  yalley  traversed  by  the  river 
Oulas;  in  less  than  four  hours  the  inhabitants  of  Bombay 
can  to-day  reach  the  summit  of  the  hill. 

Mahahalechwar,  one  of  the  most  frequented  of  the  health 
cities  of  the  Western  Ghattes,  is  found  in  the  district  of 
Satara.  at  an  altitude  of  1347  meters.  In  spring  it  becomes 
the  residence  of  most  of  the  high  officials  of  Bombay.  Dur- 
ing the  warm  season  Mahahalechwar  is  very  agreeable;  it 
was  founded  in  1828,  by  a  governor  of  Bombay,  Malcom,  and 
one  of  the  villages  of  the  station  is  named  Malcompet. 

From  10  to  15  kilometers  from  Madras,  the  two  syenitic 
huttes  called  the  3Ionts  Saint-Thomas  (where  the  governor's 
villa,  noted  for  its  gardens,  is  located)  serve,  like  the  pla- 
teaux of  Mysore,  as  summer  residences  for  Europeans.  Ban- 
galore, with  an  altitude  of  924  meters,  is  considered  one  of  the 
most  healthful  stations  of  the  region;  many  English  are 
established  there. 

South  of  Mysore,  the  town  of  OutaTcamound,  the  prii- 
cipal  place  of  the  Nilghiri,  is  of  modern  origin;  its  pleasure- 
houses  are  scattered  over  considerable  space  at  a  mean 
altitude  of  2200  meters;  to  the  east  the  escarpments  of 
the  Dodabetta,  the  Hotahiri,  and  the  Kounour  are  likewise 
peopled  by  Europeans.  Outakamouiid,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  the  other  English  towns  of  India,  has  not  less  than 
three  trial  gardens  for  the  culture  of  exotic  species;  these 
gardens  are  elevated  at  different  heights  upon  the  slopes  of 
the  plateau.  The  lirst  cinchona  plants  were  imported  from 
Peru  in  ISdO,  and  within  a  few  years  2r),(l()()  of  these  plants 
w^ere  prosjxn-ing  in  the  environs  of  Outakanionnd.  Now 
vast  forests  of  quin-quinas  have  largely  replaced  the  grasses 
and  jungles  of  the  plateau,  and  furnish  the  British  Army 
an  abundant  supply  of  febrifuge. 

Near  Calcutta.  Ifazarihagh,  a  station  renowned  for  its 


Hi/f/irnr  of  the  Soldier  in  I  lie  Tropics.  IT 

line  air,  is  constantly  gaining  in  inipditance  as  a  summer 
resort  for  the  English  merchants  of  Calcutta  who  are  kept 
in  the  neighborhood  by  business  atfairs. 

Ddrjediinj  is  situated  on  the  narrow  edge  of  a  moun- 
tain, and  has  an  altitude  of  from  lMKMI  to  iMOd  meters;  1800 
meters  below  lies  the  gorge  through  which  tlow  the  waters 
of  the  Grand  Kandjit.  This  health  city  is  (iSO  kilometers 
from  the  Anglo-Indian  <-a})ital ;  the  journey  can  be  made  in 
twenty  tour  hours  by  a  railroad  running  from  Calcutta  to 
the  foot  of  the  mountain.  The  climate  is  very  humid,  the 
rains  being  almost  (hiily.  Like  almost  all  the  health  cities 
of  India.  l)arj«^<ding  is  tlanked  l)y  barracks  and  batteries  and 
constitutes  an  im])ortant  stratt^gical  ])oint.  Elegant  viUas 
and  luxurious  residences  have  grouped  themselves  little  by 
little  around  the  l»airacks,  and  during  the  warm  season  be- 
come the  homes  of  high  functionaries,  oiticei-s,  and  English 
merchants. 

At  an  altitude  of  2100  meters.  u])on  a  slo])e  of  the 
central  Himalayas,  Landour  is  also  an  im])ortant  military 
station  and  nott^l  t(twn.  It  otters  great  advantages  from 
the  e(|uableness  of  temperature,  summer  and  winter,  day 
and  night;  but  during  the  rainy  season  it  is  exposed  to  all 
the  violence  of  the  monsoon  and  the  rains  are  very  frecjuent; 
in  1835,  a  German  traveler,  Hiigel,  saw  it  rain  for  eighty- 
five  consecutive  days. 

Almora  is  situated  on  the  Indian  slo]»e  of  the  central 
Himalayas,  in  the  basin  of  the  Kampanga,  an  affluent  of  the 
(Tanges,  upon  a  spur  of  the  nnnintains  commanding  a  vast 
horizon.  It  is  one  of  the  towns  preferred  by  the  English  on 
account  of  its  elevation,  1050  meters,  and  the  coolness  of 
the  air.  Almora,  the  capital  of  Konmaon,  lias  for  its  rival 
as  a  health  city  its  neighboi-,  the  modern  Banil-hef,  situ- 
ated upon  a  plateau,  at  an  altitude  of  1815  meters,  and  otfer- 


18  Hygiene  of  the  iSoldier  in  the  Tropics. 

iii<^  (wbat  nearly  all  other  towns  in  the  Himalayas  lack)  an 
abundance  of  water,  level  ground,  and  excellent  materials 
for  construction  (stone  and  wood). 

In  the  I'unjab,  upon  a  i>romontory  of  the  last  Hima- 
layan chain,  the  British  Government  has  founded  a  health 
city  for  its  employees  and  soldiers.  Dalhovsi,  at  an  altitude 
of  2243  meters,  makes  a  su]»erb  observatory,  whence  the 
view  extends  over  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Ravi,  the 
mountains  of  Kangra,  and  the  neighboring  plains  of  Lahore 
and  Amritsir.  To  the  southeast,  a  buttress  of  the  Dhaola- 
Dhar  or  •'\Miite  Mountain''  bears  the  pleasure-houses  of 
Dluirmsaia,  scattered  between  1350  and  1950  meters  along 
the  mountain  slopes.  This  other  health  city,  which  has 
replaced  an  anticjue  Ihahmin  sanctuary,  has  become  the 
chief  place  of  the  entire  Kangra  district  and  the  center  of 
numerous  tea  plantations. 

Simla  (35,000  inhabitants),  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
21G0  meters,  upon  the  Indian  slope  of  the  central  Hima- 
layas, occupies  a  separate  domain  between  the  provinces 
of  the  west  and  central  Himalayas.  Simla  was  founded 
recently,  but  the  advantage's  (tf  its  position  and  the  caprice 
of  a  viceroy  of  India  have  made  it  the  summer  cai)ital  for 
the  whole  empire.  As  soon  as  the  hot  season  comes  on,  the 
routes  leading  from  the  plain  t<»wards  Simla  are  covered 
with  convoys  and  (Mpiijtages  carrying  to  the  health  city  the 
high  functionaries  of  Calcutta,  followed  by  their  employees; 
even  some  of  the  jtrincipal  state  officials  emigrate  every 
year  at  this  lime  fiom  the  one  to  the  oilier  city.  To  the 
south  of  Simla,  whose  fame  dates  back  scarcely  thirty  years, 
several  other  health  cities  have  been  built  ui»on  the  slopes 
or  ci'own  till*  liills.  These  are  Soiitxifhnii^  Ko^iaoti,  Diujchdi, 
and  k'litlfi,  which  are  at  the  same  time  military  stations. 

The  island  of  Ceylon,  which  likewise  foiins  a  pait  of  the 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  19 

great  Anglo-Indian  Empire,  and  is  sejtarated  from  the  Dec- 
can  only  by  a  narrow  and  shallow  strait,  merits  mention 
from  the  point  of  view  now  occupying  our  attention.  Un- 
healthy in  the  lowlands  to  the  north  of  the  island,  in  the 
plains,  and  along  the  shores  which  border  the  littoral, 
where  the  heat  is  insupportable  in  the  hot  season  (the  mean 
annual  temperature  being  27°  to  28°  Tentigrade),  the  climate 
of  Ceylon  is  very  salubrious  and  most  agreeable  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Pedrotallagalla  and  Samanala  (Adam's  Peak),  whose 
summits  attain  2200  to  2500  meters.  The  Portuguese,  the 
former  possessors  of  the  island,  and  aftei-  them  the  English, 
have  established  their  summer  residences  at  points  varying 
in  altitude  from  1000  to  1500  meters.  In  the  hot  season  the 
Europeans  and  officials  desert  in  a  body  the  ports  of  Col- 
ombo, Pointe-de-Galle,  and  Triucomalee,  repairing  to  Kandy, 
518  meters  in  altitude,  on  a  bend  of  the  only  river  of  the 
island,  the  Mahavila.  When  their  business  ])ermits  theiu 
to  go  farther  away,  they  jiass  the  hot  season  at  Nourfm-Elld. 
which  has  an  altitude  of  1800  meters. 

It  was  very  natural  for  the  English  to  seek  to  establish 
these  centers  in  the  mountainous  regions  and  upon  the  ad- 
vanced promontories  of  the  Himalayas,  where  it  would  be 
possible  for  them  to  recuperate  their  health,  compromised 
by  a  sojourn  in  the  burning  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  Indus, 
and  to  recover  their  strength,  enfeebled  by  so  debilitating 
a  climate. 

Britisli  AntiUes. — In  Jamaica,  during  the  warm  season, 
the  English  send  their  European  troops  to  stations  estab- 
lished at  different  points  of  the  Blue  ^Mountains,  where 
the  temperature  is  from  12  to  i:*>  degrees  lower  than  in  the 
towns  of  the  littoral,  like  Kingston,  and  where  hygienic 
conditions  are  excellent. 

The  forests  of  Hope  Gardens  enjoy  a  great  reputation 


20  Hi/giene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

for  liealthfuliiessj.  There  has  been  established  at  Neurastic, 
at  an  altitude  of  1158  meters,  a  camp  of  preservation,  to 
which  is  sent  the  greater  i>art  of  the  garrison  during  winter 
and  in  times  of  epidemic. 

Western  Africa. — A  recent  fact  well  shows  the  interest 
taken  bv  the  English  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  of 
colonial  hygiene. 

They  have  resolved  to  establish  a  sanatorium  for  the 
West  Coast  of  Africa,  as  a  monument  to  the  memorv  of 
Prince  Henry  of  Battenberg;  but  they  have  not  yet  defi- 
nitely decided  upon  its  location.  Some  propose  to  establish 
it  upon  the  continent  itself,  choosing  an  elevated  locality 
between  Cape  Coast  and  Elmira;  others  wish  to  select  an 
appropriate  site  on  the  Gran  Canaria.  At  the  present  time, 
the  last  solution  would  seem  to  be  much  preferable  to  the 
first,  for  the  (han  Canaria  is  much  more  accessible  to  the 
Europeans  who  live  upon  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  than 
any  locality  in  the  interior.  Moreover,  it  is  reached  by  sea, 
avoiding  all  the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  a  journe}-  across 
a  pestilential  country.  Besides,  the  Gran  Canaria,  except 
in  certain  respects,  is  a  very  healthy  place;  it  also  oft'ers  all 
the  alimentary  resources  of  a  civilized  country,  conditions 
which  could  not  bo  found  in  the  interior  of  Africa.  A 
temporary  stay  in  a  subtropical  climate  like  that  of  the 
Gran  Canaria  would  be  admirably  suited  to  anaemic  and 
paludal  persons,  and  would  perha])s  be  even  preferable  to 
an  immediate  return  to  the  cold  and  humid  regions  of 
northern  I^hiiopc. 

AMien  Ihe  lihick  Continent  has  been  bcllcr  explored, 
when  routes  and  railroads  have  been  established,  it  will  not 
be  imi)ossil)le  to  ha\('  in  (lie  interior,  far  from  the  marshes 
of  the  coast,  sanitary  staticms  whicli  can  be  it'ached  in  a 
few  hours. 


/Iill/lcnc  iif  ihf  Soldier  in  fhr  Tropins.  21 

DUTCH    STATIONS. 

In  their  colonies  in  tlie  Snnda  Isles,  tlie  Dntcli  have 
likewise  established  sanitary  stations. 

At  Java,  to  the  sonth  of  Anibarawa.  upon  the  ttrst 
slopes  of  Merbaboe,  at  an  altitude  of  574  meters,  is  found 
the  town  of  Salatii/a,  much  freiiuented  during  the  warm 
season;  the  climate  is  very  aj,^reeable  and  the  view 
magniflcent. 

T()S(tri,  at  an  altitude  of  ITSd  meters,  is  the  principal 
station  of  eastern  JaAa;  situated  at  an  angle  of  an  epaul- 
ment  of  the  T«Migger,  it  is  much  frecpiented  by  European 
ottirials  and  merchants  on  account  of  its  climatic  conditions. 

•Java  possesses  several  other  sanitary  stations  at  alti- 
tudes varying  from  lOTO  to  iSdO  meters,  situated  in  well- 
chosen  places,  in  the  midst  of  a  luxuriant  vegetation;  such 
are  the  sanatoria  of  Sindang  Laya,  lluitenzorg.  Tchiodas, 
and  others. 

The  mortality  of  Europeans  in  Java  is  to-day  ten  times 
less  than  in  the  last  century.  Hygienic  rules  are  more 
carefully  observed;  sites  for  haltitations  are  chosen  in 
healthy  places,  and  the  stations  for  summer  residence,  situ- 
ated at  various  altitudes,  permit  a  graduation  of  climate  for 
valetudinarians  and  convalescents.  Nevertheless  one  must 
know  how  to  protect  himself,  by  a.  strict  rpijime,  against 
certain  diseases,  particularly  beriberi,  which  now  and  then 
commits  terrible  ravages  upon  soldiers  of  every  nationality 
com])osiug  the  colonial  aiiny  of  Holland  in  the  Insulinde. 

FRENCH   STATIONS. 

In  one  of  the  French  Antilh's,  (luadaloupe,  the  soldiers 

are  \\o\  (juartered  habitually  at  Hasse-Terre,  nor  at  Pointe- 

.a-Pitre,  but  at  ('(iinp  Jnrnh.     It  is  the  only  one  of  our  jxtsses- 

sions  where  it  has  been  dared,  u]>  to  the  present,  to  openly 


22  Hygiene  of  ihe  ^Soldier  in  Ike  Tropics. 

break  away  from  the  customs  of  Old  Europe.  In  fact, 
Guadaloupe  has  possessed,  since  1841.  Camp  Jacob,  situ- 
ated at  an  altitude  of  545  meters,  above  Basse-Terre  and  at 
the  foot  of  the  sulphur  mine.  The  creation  of  this  camp, 
due  to  the  initiative  of  Admiral  de  Mosses,  has  been  of  con- 
siderable service,  and  has  resulted,  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point, in  great  progress.  The  mortality  has  become  very 
light  since  the  day  it  was  decided  to  place  the  troops  there. 

At  Martinique,  the  occupation  of  Balata,  since  lSt>9,  has 
been  only  temporary  and  subordinated  to  circumstances. 
At  Balata.  however,- as  at  Pitons.  the  benefits  of  altitude 
are  lessened  by  the  defective  installation  of  the  huts. 

As  for  Senegal,  the  dissemination  of  the  white  troops 
takes  place,  for  the  garrisons  of  Dakar  and  Saint-Louis, 
only  during  the  winter.  Tlfe  chief  place  of  our  possessions 
in  Guinea,  Konnhri/,  seems  to  be  happily  chosen.  The  first 
buttresses  of  the  Fouta-Djallon  have  been  pointed  out  as 
relatively  healthy.  It  ai»])ears  that  beyond  Abomey  there 
is  a  fertile  country,  favorable  to  European  colonization  and 
with  an  altitude  of  from  400  to  500  meters. 

In  Kongo,  after  having  ciossed  the  terraces  traversed 
in  cascades  by  the  African  rivers,  Stanley  and  De  Brazza 
found  healthy  ])lateaux  wheic  it  would  be  possible  for-  the 
European  to  live. 

In  Indo CliiuM.  at  Reunion,  and  in  Madagascar  this 
question  becomes  of  still  moi-e  capital  imj)ortan<e. 

fndo-Clilna. — It  would  have  been  ]»ossil)le  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  occu]i;i(ion  (o  liave  avoided  locating  onr  troo]»s 
in  the  lowlands  ol  Cochin-riiina.  To-day  it  is  an  accom- 
plished fact,  and  making  Saigon  healthful  has  rejtaired  the 
first  error. 

It  would  have  been  easy  to  have  established  stations- 
n]ion  the  htw  heiglits  of  Cajie  Saint-Janies  and  also   n|)on 


Hygieiw  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  23 

the  liilli^  of  the  islands  Po-Coudore,  at  an  altitude  of  350 
meters. 

In  tlie  heights  the  Europeans  would  tind  a  cooler 
temperature,  a  purer  atmosphere,  and  a  more  healthful  soil. 

This  is  true  on  condition  that  cultivation  has  caused 
the  elements  of  paludism  to  disappear  from  the  woods. 
Thus  in  Tono-King  the  high,  wooded,  uncultivated  plateaux 
are  more  febrific  than  the  Delta  and  cannot  be  utilized.  It 
might  be  possible  to  make  use  of  the  lower  altitudes  of  Dap- 
Cau.  Quan-Yen,  Bavi,  and  of  the  peninsula  of  Do-Son. 

There  is  encountered  between  southern  Tong-King  and 
Annam,  on  the  one  hand  the  valley  of  Mekong  and  on  the 
other  a  series  of  plateaux  of  variable  altitude  and  extent 
which  present  exceptional  conditions  in  point  of  climate, 
natural  products,  and  general  apjtearauce  of  the  country. 
These  plateaux  offer  advantages  pointed  out  for  the  first 
time  by  M.  Harmand,  and  it  is  certainly  there,  in  the  future, 
after  the  indispensable  work  of  clearing  and  grubbing  has 
been  done,  that,  after  the  examjde  of  the  English,  we  will 
establish  our  Indo-Chinese  summer  resorts  for  our  soldiers 
and  European  officials,  in  conditions  of  economy  and  with 
facilities  which  the  stations  of  Simla  and  Outakamound  do 
not  present. 

From  this  point  of  view,  there  may  be  specially  cited 
the  great  plateau  of  Boloren.  situated  at  an  altitude  of  050 
to  1000  meters,  between  Bassac  and  the  i)ort  of  Tourane; 
that  is  to  say,  towards  the  very  center  of  our  possessions, 
and  relatively  easy  of  access.  To  put  it  in  communication 
with  the  coast,  a  metaled  road  of  from  200  to  250  kilometers 
would  suffice,  much  shorter  than  the  one  which  puts  Cal- 
cutta in  communication  with  Darjeeling.  There  can  be 
found  the  most  fertile  soil,  the  conditions  and  climate  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  pines,  oaks,  chestnuts,  and  elms;  the 


24:  Hi/f/idjr  of  the  Soldier  i)i  the  Tropics. 

extent  of  tliesse  maimuillatcd  plains  is  such  that  it  wonhl 
be  possible  to  establish,  in  addition  to  residences  and  health 
cities,  vast  agricultural  undertakings. 

Reunion. — It  would  be  easy  to  construct  on  the  heights 
of  Reunion  stations  for  preserving  the  health  of  the  sol- 
diers who  must  i)ass  several  years  in  the  island.  Upon  the 
mountains  which  stretch  fiiuii  the  north  to  the  south  of  Re- 
union, at  a  short  distance  from  the  coast,  are  already  found 
places  (tf  ((tnvalescence  well  known  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Mauritius,  who,  decimated  by  fever  in  their  own  island, 
come  there  to  regain  their  health.  These  are  Solazie,  Sainf- 
Fram^-ois,  Cilaos,  and  Mafat. 

To-day  there  are  military  establishments  at  two  of 
these  easily  accessible  places  of  convalescence.  Situated 
in  one  of  the  interior  basins  of  the  island,  52  kilometers 
fi-om  Saint-Denis  and  at  an  altitude  of  !MM>  uieters,  Salazie 
is  a  veritable  sanatorium,  where  men  already  convalescent 
go  to  complete  their  cures.  Soint-FrdnQois  is  rather  a  sum- 
nuM-  station  for  the  soldiers;  sitimted  on  the  flank  of  the 
mountain  which  overlooks  Saint  Denis,  and  three  hours 
from  the  latter  town,  with  an  altitude  of  al»out  4()(>  nutters, 
it  possesses  well-installed  huts.  This  station,  at  a  moderate 
altitud(^  and  in  ]>i'oximity  to  the  chief  place,  would  be  found 
well  ada])ted  to  accommodate  the  gairison  permanently, 
like  ('amj>  Jacob  in  (}uadalou|>e. 

Miiddfiasrar. — In  our  new  possession  nothing  would  be 
more  useful  than  to  (establish  sanitary  stations  for  our 
f  ro<»]»s. 

rpon  the  coast  thei-e  are  no  healthy  points,  with  the 
possible  excei)ti<tn  of  XossiCondia  and  Xoss-N'e,  on  the 
west  coast  and  Aiijoiian   in  tiie  Camores. 

On  the  east  coast  it  may  be  said  that  all  localities  are 
unhealthy,  not  excepting  Diego  Saure/,. 


Jli/l/iriic  of  ihe  Solilicr  in  the  Tropics.  25 

But  as  a  oompeusatioii,  the  mouutainoiis  buttresses 
approach  the  sea,  and,  without  beinj^f  obliged  to  mount  to 
the  summit  of  the  phvteau,  we  could  create  veritable 
''health  cities,"  in  the  middle  zone,  upon  the  buttresses  of 
the  grand  central  chain,  (piite  comparable  to  the  Ghattes 
of  India.  This  middle  zone,  inhabited  more  especially  by 
Europeans,  could  be  jilanted  in  cotfee,  cocoa-trees,  etc.;  to- 
bacco, vanilla,  corn,  i»otatoes,  and  mountain  rice  could  also 
be  cultivated  there.  Our  great  colony,  put  in  operation, 
would  become  a  new  India,  and,  like  Java,  would  attain,  in  a 
few  years,  one  of  the  tirst  places  as  a  coffee-producing  center. 

Interesting  as  are  colonization  and  (M-onomic  (piestions, 
we  would  wish,  above  all,  that  our  soldiers,  who  assure  the 
security  of  our  colonial  domain,  be  protectcnl  in  the  best  pos- 
sible manner  against  the  endemic  paludism,  and  we  are  con- 
vinced that  this  result  would  be  obtained  by  utilizing  the 
heights. 

In  speaking  of  sanatoria,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  show 
that  the  heights  are  far  from  being  suited  to  all  convales- 
cents, still  less  to  certain  diseases;  the  coolness  of  the  nights 
is  relatively  too  sensible  for  those  affected  with  an:emia, 
paludism,  and,  above  all,  with  dysentery. 

It  would  be  wrong  to  demand  of  the  climates  of  high 
altitudes  curative  virtues  which  they  cannot  possess;  but 
their  high  degree  of  preserving  power  should  be  loudly  pro- 
claimed. It  is  in  the  heights,  then,  that  the  European  troops 
forming  part  of  the  colonial  regiments  should  be  perma- 
nently stationed,  save  in  cases  where  this  is  impossible.  We 
will  add  that  there  would  be  prottt  in  giving  the  native 
troo])S  the  same  advantage  of  garrison. 

i;  II.     Situdfio)!  of  J->(irrad-s  aiid  Posts. 
The  benefits  of  altitude  are  lost  if  care  is  not  taken  at 


26  IJygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

the  outset  to  remedy  the  inherent  defective  conditions  in 
geological  formation  or  in  the  nature  of  the  vegetation. 

At  Baria,  in  1878,  the  establishment  of  a  sanatorium  on 
Nin-Din  mountain  was  a  complete  failure;  the  hill  not  hav- 
ing been  sufficiently  prepared  by  axe  and  fire,  the  jialudal  or 
dysenteric  patients  taken  there  and  quartered  in  the  bar- 
racks, which  were  also  defective,  all  felt  an  aggr.avation  of 
their  condition. 

In  Tong-King,  on  the  road  to  Langson,  the  healthful- 
ness  of  the  posts  differs  essentially,  according  to  the  condi- 
tions under  which  they  have  been  established.  The  pre- 
cautions to  be  taken  may  be  stated  as  follows:  Avoid  hills 
where  heaps  of  organic  matters  in  decomposition  are  found; 
choose  in  preference  grassy  plateaux ;  make  the  site  healthy 
at  the  outset  by  clearing  the  trees,  burning  the  brushwood, 
ramming  the  soil,  and  sodding.  If  these  conditions  are  not 
fulfilled,  the  mountain,  in  spite  of  its  lower  temperature,  will 
be  inferior  in  healthfulness  to  a  nmrshy  but  well-cultivated 
plain,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Tong-King  Delta. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  place  troops  nj)on  high 
ground  and  it  is  often  necessary  to  be  resigned  to  (]uartering 
them  in  the  plain.  In  this  case  special  care  should  be  taken 
in  choosing  the  ground  and  in  cleaning  u]>  the  soil  so  as  to 
diminish  as  much  as  ])ossible  its  hainifulness  to  health. 
Humid  ground,  rich  in  organic  matter,  should  be  rejected. 
On  the  contrary,  thick  beds  of  sandy  ground  containing 
little  soil  should  be  sought.  Land  fonned  of  hard  limestone, 
of  primitive  rock,  will  be  excellent  if  care  is  taken  to  level 
the  basins  in  whicli  mineral  ;in<l  organic  drhris  accumulate 
and  fermentation  is  jtroduced.  Rodi  <lay(\v  and  tillable 
ground  should  be  discarded. 

The  soil  should  be  drained  if  there  are  doubts  as  to  its 
dryness.      Artificial  ])i-ocesses  of  drainage  are  familiar.      A 


Hijgiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  27 

slight  slope  of  the  gioniid  renders  them  easy  aud  effi.-^acious.  , 

Small  trenches  and  collecting  ditches,  to  drain  the  ground 
and  carry  the  water  to  a  river  or  to  the  sea,  will  suffice. 

Wherever  sanitation  by  cultivation  may  be  attempted, 
the  Algerian  exam])les  should  be  referred  to  and  inspiration 
derived  from  the  wise  counsels  of  military  hygienists. 

Plantations  which  constitute  a  sort  of  natural  drainage 
should  not  be  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  quarters,  but 
at  a  certain  distance,  on  account  of  the  humidity.  The  euca- 
lyptus and  the  bamboo  seem  to  be  most  useful. 

A  judicious  examination  of  the  soil  and  subsoil,  of  pools 
of  water  with  a  tendency  to  stagnation,  and  of  neighboring 
marshes,  should  be  made.  The  fixed  rule  is:  '^The  level  of 
the  subterranean  water  should  be  at  least  one  meter  below 
the  surface." 

It  may  also  be  said  that  the  best  orientation  is  east  and 
west,  with  slight  inclination  to  north  and  south,  according 
to  hemisphere  and  the  prevailing  breezes. 

When  troops  have  to  be  left  in  contact  with  an  urban 
population,  it  is  important  to  remove  them  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  center  of  The  towns  and  to  place  their  barracks  out- 
side the  inhabited  zones.  There,  as  everywhere  else,  they 
should  be  separated  from  rice  plantations,  marshes,  muddy  , 

arroyos.  slimy  canals,  and  cemeteries.  They  should  always 
be  ])laced  to  windward  of  these  causes  of  unhealthiness  and 
sheltered  from  them  by  a  screen  of  trees.  The  proximity  of 
the  sea-shore  or  of  the  banks  of  a  river  has  its  advantages 
and  its  disadvantages;  there  is  an  abundance  of  water  and 
coolness;  but,  if  the  distance  is  not  great  enough,  the  humid- 
ity is  to  be  feared,  and  also  inundations. 

Thus  tRe  situation  of  barracks  or  of  a  post  is  not  a 
matter  of  indifterence.  Too  often  a  question  of  pure  con- 
venience guides  the  choice  of  the  persons  called  on  to  fix  the  ij 


28  II i/(/iene  of  tltr  t^oldier  in  the  Tropics. 

sites  of  future  uiilitaiy  coustiMictions.  This  is  wrong.  The 
work  of  tlie  coniuiissions  is  hiid  out.  and  if  they  bear  in  mind 
tlie  principl*  s  we  have  just  outlined,  there  will  never  again 
be  built  in  the  colonies  a  military  establishment,  no  matter 
how  modest,  noi-  how  temporary  is  to  be  its  occupation,  on 
the  border  of  a  marsh,  in  the  dry  bed  of  a  river,  or  under  the 
wind  from  an  infected  village. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  sacrilice  of  the  most  elementary 
hygienic  precautions  is  hardly  ever  demanded  by  the  neces- 
sities of  war  or  circumstances  beyond  control,  excuses 
behind  which  cai-elessness  or  incapacity  find  willing  shelter. 
;;  III.      Coloiiio]  Ildbifdlions. 

A\'ith  regard  to  colonial  habitations,  it  is  well  to  med- 
itate upon  the  ehxiuent  words  recently  sjjoken,  at  the 
Academy  of  ^^ciences,  by  M.  P.rouardel.  Confined  air  is  the 
great  propagator  of  disease,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  co- 
habitation of  healthy  organisms  with  those  which  are  con- 
taminated; tlu-  public  powers  and  the  corps  of  savants  could 
not  better  emjyloy  their  intluence  tlian  by  ]>romoting  more 
efficacious  measures  against  unhealthy  habitations.  Ke- 
calling  the  Persian  ])roverb,  "NMiere  there  is  neither  air  nor 
light,  the  doctor  often  enters,"  the  eminent  professor  de- 
clares that  infecti<ms  diseases  ai-e  no  longer  caught  in  the 
hospitals,  but  in  the  town,  and  points  (uit  the  means  to  be 
emjdoycd  to  diminish  the  niiuibei-  of  cjtidemics. 

In  the  colonies  theii^  is  much  m(»re  to  be  said  and  much 
more  to  be  done.  Hygienic  mistakes  are  nol  lacking  and 
great  vigilance  is  i-e(|uired  to  protect  Knropeaus  fi-om  dis- 
eases arising  from  the  bad  appointments  of  the  (piaiteis.  It 
will  suffi<-(^  to  give  some  indication  of  the  requii-eimmts  of 
habitatiims  appropriate  for  soldieis  in  the  Troi»ics. 

PEBMANENT    HABITATIONS. 

Barracks  should  never  be  built  hastily,  as  a  sim]tle 
shelter  from  the  sun  and  a  I'oof  to  keep  otf  the  rain;  they 


J/ i/f/ieiii'  of  the  Soldier  in  (lie  Tro/iics.  29 

should  1)(-,  ill  cvciy  sense.  ;i  itrotectiiiji.  hyjj,ienic.  and  liealtb- 
ful  lo<l<;iiiji. 

77/r  colonial  hohilfilioii  slioiild  he  buiU  irilh  lite  (jredlest  care 
and  of  inalerials  jto.^sessint/  suffirienl  resistance  lo  irithstand  dam- 
age, as  hij  Ihe  sim,  rain,  irinds,  meteors,  humid  or  paludal  soil,  or 
the  action  of  insects:  if  it  suffers  from  these  causes,  the  occupant 
vould  suffer  more. 

Tliis  is  a  ])rin(i]ile  too  imicli  ignored  by  biiildtn-s  wlio 
rely  on  the  mildness  of  tlu^  cliniate  and  imagine  that  a 
simple  screen  interposed  between  the  resident  and  tin-  ex- 
terior suffices  to  i)rote(t  him,  without  taking  account  of  the 
danger  from  the  proximity  of  a  i)aludal  soil. 

Constructed  upon  dry  ground,  or  ground  dried  by  tire 
and  carefully  rammed,  the  barracks  should  be  raised  upon 
arches,  or  even  ui)oii  i)iles.  whenever  it  is  too  diffi<-ult  to 
obtain  i»erfe<-t  drainage.  (Msterns.  reservoirs.  i)um])S — any- 
thing, in  a  W(Hd,  which  can  hold  moisture — should  never  be 
jilaced  in  barracks.  Humidity,  indeed,  is  the  condition  most 
favorable  to  the  development  of  germs. 

The  walls  should  be  very  thick.  The  ideal  building  in 
a  tropical  country  would  be  of  granite  or  of  cemented  mar- 
ble, and  the  coiKpicring  l^jtaniards  divined  the  best  means 
of  having  cool  houses  in  their  lavish  use  of  hard  stone  and 
marble  in  their  sumptuous  palaces  in  Havana. 

The  walls  should  be  painted,  not  white,  but  in  light 
colors.  It  would  be  best  to  use  oil  paints,  which  vitrify  the 
surfaces,  facilitating  cleaning  and  disinfection.  The  stairs 
should  be  iron,  and  wide  passages  should  separate  the  apart- 
ments on  each  floor. 

The  flooring  of  the  ground  floor  should  be  well  raised,  a 
meter  at  least,  esjiecially  if  there  are  no  cellars. 

The  rooflng  should  be  double  or  doubled  witli  a  ceiling, 
and  sufficiently  inclined.     In  the  colonies,  shingles,  thatch. 


30  Hi/gieiic  of  lite  Soldier  in  lite  Tropics. 

ziuc,  and  brick  are  used.  The  most  coinmeiidable  roofiuji-  is 
cei'tainly  one  of  fitted  briclcs,  resting  on  imbricated  and 
strongly  fastened  shingles.  Terraced  roofs  would  have 
more  inconveniences  than  advantages. 

A  gallery  is  indispensable  for  each  story.  One  sleeps 
inside  the  house,  but  one  eats,  receives,  works — in  fact,  lives 
— on  the  gallery.  The  flooring  of  the  ground  floor  should  be 
continued  under  the  gallery,  and  the  materials,  glazed  or 
ceramic  tiles,  should  be  the  same.  It  projects  beyond  the 
walls  3  to  4  meters  and  is  supported  by  columns  of  brick, 
stone,  or  cast-iron.  The  interior  wall  should  be  that  of  the 
house  itself,  painted  gray  or  light  yellow;  the  external  wall 
should  be  made  of  fixed  or  movable  Venetian  blinds,  or  even 
of  matting  blinds.  It  is  well  to  have  the  gallery  run  all  the 
way  around  the  house;  one  of  the  sides  will  then  always  be 
shady. 

All  the  windows  should  be  portes-foietrcs,  since  all  open 
upon  the  gallery.  These  large  openings  from  floor  to  ceiling 
facilitate  the  renewal  of  the  interior  air.  The  outside  shut- 
ters should  have  overlai)ping  slats  capable  of  being  opened 
to  admit  the  light;  the  interior  doors  should  be  glazed  and 
ought  to  be  closed  at  night.  The  rooms  should  be  very 
large;  the  local  accessories  of  the  barracks  should  be  on  the 
ground  floor. 

Thus  understood,  the  colonial  barracks  will  secure  to 
their  occupants  tlu^  best  ]»rotection  against  the  soil  and 
against  Inimidity,  and  will  jtrovide  tlieni.  moreover,  with 
space,  air,  and  coolness.  There  will  be  sufticient  ventilation 
if  the  roofs  are  provided  with  simple  ventilatoi'S  like  those  in 
the  barracks  of  Hanoi,  care  being  taken  t(»  provide  for  the 
case  when  they  should  be  kept  closed. 

The  electric  light  will  be  the  future  illumination  of  the 
large  colonial  barracks.      The  beds  should  have  a   simple 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  31 

metal  lattice-work  as  a  l)ottoin;  the  mattresses  should  be  of 
cocoa  hair  or  granulated  cork.  Each  man  must  have  a 
mosquito  net,  a  cupboard,  and  a  bench  or  stool. 

The  annexes  of  the  barracks  also  demand  a  great  deal 
of  care  in  their  construction,  especially  tlie  latrines.  These 
should  always  be  provided  with  movable  tinettes,  instead  of 
fixed  ditches,  which  infect  tlie  soil. 

The  prei>arati()n  of  store-rooms  must  not  be  forgotten, 
nor  the  kitchens;  laundries,  paved  with  tlag-stones  and  pro- 
vided with  an  abundance  of  water,  with  impermeable  con- 
duits to  carry  the  dirty  water  outside  the  bairacks. 

The  places  of  confinement  for  discipline  sliould  never  be 
obscure  and  unhealthy. 

Finally,  a  bath-house  with  a  sufficient  number  of  wash- 
stands  on  the  galleries  will  complete  the  cnscmhle  of  hygienic 
barracks  in  the  colonies. 

TEMPORARY    HABITATIONS. 

Temporary  use  can  be  made  of  houses,  temples,  pagodas, 
factories,  store-houses,  barracks,  and  abandoned  citadels. 
These  are  tlie  liahifations  of  rliance. 

In  this  case  it  must  be  remembered  that  aeration,  clean- 
ing, and,  above  all,  disinfection  are  necessaiT  to  render  Tlieni 
temporarily  habital)le,  for  they  are  usually  ver}'  unclean  and 
always  open  to  suspicion.  When  necessary  to  construct 
temporary  quarters,  it  is  best  to  conform  to  the  method  of 
the  country.  Paillottes,  huts  of  bamboq  or  of  the  leaves  of 
the  palm  or  ranevala,  are  of  great  service  if  the  precaution  is 
taken  to  erect  them  upon  soil  which  has  been  cleared, 
rammed,  and  dried  l)y  fire.  Care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  buildings  large,  to  have  the  walls  and  roofs  thick  enough, 
and  to  make  the  latter  project  all  around  the  walls  so  as  to 
form  galleries.  From  time  to  time  there  is  occasion  to 
renew  all  except  the  framework,  at  least  the  straw  and  other 


32  II !/(jieiie  of  the  ^ohlicr  m  Hie  Tropics. 

vegetable  inat<'i-ials  of  llie  roofs  and  walls,  wliicli  bec-oine 
impregnated  with  liuniidity  and  exhalations,  and  form,  for 
that  reason,  a  rt^-ejitacle  for  miasma.  Finally,  in  case  of 
epidemic,  the  commandant  shonld  not  hesitate  a  single 
instant  to  abandon  th'^sc  (jnarters,  which  have  cost  so  little, 
and  consign  tlu^m  t(»  the  flames,  while  he  erects  others  upon 
different  ground. 

Pisa  and  mud  have  sonu-  advantages,  but  only  for  tem- 
porary structures,  to  b<^  used  for  a  longer  time  than  the 
simple  pdilhiHcs,  and  which  should  therefore  offer  more 
resistance. 

What  is  to  be  thcmght  of  ready-made  huts,  in  sections, 
for  the  colonies?  There  is  no  lack  of  models:  the  ])avilions 
of  Moysart  and  Espitalier;  the  movable  barracks  of  Kave- 
nez;  the  tent  of  Doeker,  of  Lefort,  <^tc.  In  onr  oitinion,  solid 
and  thick  paiJIol/es  aie  better. 

In  Euroi)e  the  hut  nuiy  be  of  service;  in  oui-  clinnitc  the 
heat  is  never  toiiid  in  summer;  the  rains  have  nothing  in 
common  with  those  drenching  downpours,  the  common 
showers  of  tro])ical  countri(^s.  In  Avinter  there  is  every  fa- 
cility foi-  warming  IIk^  interioi-  of  the  quarters  and  for  ]tre- 
serving  a  Aery  sui)portable  temperature.  Is  it  the  same  in 
the  hot  countries?  Theie  the  sun  disjoints  Avails  and  roofs 
and  warjis  metal  plates;  the  water  of  the  torrential  lains 
inliltiates  tliroiigh  llie  joints  and  crevices,  the  liuniidity  cor- 
i-odes  (he  t  imbers  and  insects  devoui-  them.  All  these  struct- 
ures beconu'  heated  to  tlu^  ]>oint  of  being  uninhabitable 
during  the  day,  but  beconu'  cool  during  the  niglil.  hi  a 
woi-d,  the  nnidel  of  the  ideal  hut  for  hot  countries  is  yet  to  be 
found.  While  awaiting  the  realization  of  this  hygituiic  de- 
sideialum.  il  would  be  ]»ossible  to  snpi»ly  expeditionary 
columns  with  light  and  easily  assembled  inetnllic  rimnework 
in  s<'clions.     \\'itli  sti-aw,  leaves,  and  branches,  the  screens 


Iljjf/iciic  of  Ihc  iSoldier  in  the  Tropics.  33 


could  be  rapidly  prepared,  aud  their  juxtaposition  would 
permit  the  erection  of  the  huts  witli  great  facility  of 
construction. 

When  it  is  absolutely  iniitossible  to  raise  the  Hoor  of  the 
huts  sutticiently  or  to  have  high  camp  beds,  the  ground,  after 
being  dried,  should  be  spread  with  a  thick  litter  of  straw  or 
dried  herbs.  The  waterproof,  which  should  always  form 
part  of  the  cohmial  eciuipment,  could  be  used  to  envelop  this 
improvised  mattress.  At  any  price,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid 
not  only  contact  with,  but  a  too  close  proximity  to.  the 
paludal,  humid,  and  contaminated  ground,  and  the  ideal,  in 
temporary  as  well  as  in  permanent  (piarters,  is  to  remove  the 
occupant  from  it  as  far  as  possible.  It  has  always  been 
known  that,  other  things  being  equal,  the  upper  floors  of  a 
dwelling  are  tlie  most  healthy.  The  same  observation,  ap- 
ropos of  paludism,  has  been  made  in  the  most  fever-affected 
colonies,  like  (labon,  where  those  (piartered  on  an  ujiper 
floor  have  been  completely  protected  from  fever,  while  those 
on  the  ground  floor  were  stricken  without  exception. 

The  very  important  statement  may  then  be  made,  with- 
out fear  of  being  taxed  with  exaggeration,  that  the  most 
elevated  dwelling  realizes  for  individuals,  in  a  malarial 
country,  the  excellent  conditions  obtained  by  communities, 
in  the  same  country,  by  a  constant  residence  in  the  hills — 
the  hvgienic  benefit  of  altitudes. 


J 


34  Iliigieuc  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Alimentation. 

To  preserve  the  soldier  from  telluric  influences,  to  en- 
able him  to  resist  the  attacks  of  paludism  and  thermic 
auiemia,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  of  his  alimentation, 
and  he  must  be  assured  the  necessary  quantity  of  the  princi- 
pal articles  of  diet.  It  is  also  averred  that  the  bad  (piality  of 
food,  whether  solid  or  liquid,  is  the  principal  source  of  dis- 
orders of  the  digestive  organs.  In  other  words,  if  it  may  be 
said  that  the  prevention  of  paludism  depends  principally  on 
habitation  and  accessorily  on  alimentation,  the  proposition 
may  be  reversed  in  the  case  of  the  second  of  the  endenuc  af- 
fections of  hot  countries,  and  it  may  be  said  that  if  dysentery 
can  be  influenced  in  its  origin  and  evolution  by  a  defective 
abode,  it  remains,  aboAe  all,  an  aft'ection  of  alimentary 
origin. 

§  I.     K vtritire  Value  of  fhe  L'olidii. 

In  hot  countries,  as  everywhere  else,  the  comi>oiients  of 
the  ration  should  be  combined  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  the 
maintenance  and  reparation  of  streng^th.  If  properly  com- 
posed, it  should  contain  about  25  grams  of  nitrogen  and 
350  grams  of  carbon;  that  is  to  say,  sufficient  nitrogmous 
aliments,  a  suitable  projiortion  of  hydro cai-bons,  and  enough 
fat  to  ijepair  the  tissues  and  maintain  the  jilieiioniena  of 
calorification. 

At  all  times  the  soldier  works  enough  to  see  his  oigaiiic 
budget  suffer  greater  losses  by  reason  (»t  ]terspirati(»ii  and 
climatic  fatigue  than  those  suffered  in  Europe.  Thus  he 
must  receive  in  hot  latitudes  a  reparative  alimentation,  rich 
in  hydro-carbons,  abundant,  and  of  good  quality  and  variety. 


Hygiene  of  (he  iSuhlier  in  the  T rojjiex.  35 

There  are  also  conditions  demandinji'  that  tlie  ration  be 
greater  in  campaign  than  in  time  of  peace. 

Doctor  Gayet  fixes  it  thus  for  the  two  cases: 

In  peace 23  gr.  of  nitrogen;  370  gr.  of  carbon. 

In  campaign 20  gr.  of  nitrogen;  380  gr.  of  carbon. 

In  Tong-King  in  1885,  the  ration  of  the  European  troops 
would  have  been  insufficient  if  it  had  not  been  supplemented 
by  good  pay,  which  permitted  the  messes  to  buy  poultry  and 
vegetables.  In  fact,  it  contained  scarcely  20  grams  of  ni- 
trogen and  320  grams  of  carbon. 

In  Dahomey,  these  figures  were  somewhat  greater,  cor- 
responding to  22  grams  of  nitrogen  and  347  grams  of  carbon. 
The  Europeans  received  400  grams  of  fresh  meat,  in  lieu  of 
300  grams,  as  in  Tong-King. 

In  the  Soudan,  the  ration  of  meat  was  500  grams,  which 
gave  24  grams  of  nitrogen  and  342  grams  of  carbon. 

A  special  ration  has  been  issued  to  the  garrison  of 
Diego-Suarez  since  1889.  It  is  well  composed,  being  equiva- 
lent to  20  grams  of  nitrogen  and  '■\X{)  grams  of  carbon;  it  is 
rich  enough  in  nitrogenous  aliments  and  contains  a  proper 
proportion  of  hydro-carburets,  but  includes  only  such  fat  as 
is  indispensable.  Doctor  Reynaud  considers  it  nearly  the 
type  to  adopt  for  the  hot  countries.  The  composition  of  the 
ration  in  Madagascar,  for  the  campaign  of  1895,  was  based 
upon  precedent,  and  established,  it  might  be  said,  with  great 
foresight;  yet  it  contained  only  100  grams  of  vegetables  in 
place  of  120,  and  40  centiliters  of  wine  in  place  of  60. 

r.y  decision  of  the  Minister  of  War,  dated  January  11, 
1895,  it  was  fixed  as  follows: 

RATION    OF    THE    EUROPEANS. 

Bread 750  grams. 

Salt 20        ^' 

Sugar '^5        " 

Cofifee,  green 24        " 


3t)  Ilyyieiw  of  [lie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Rice 40  <,naiiis. 

Beans 80 

Vegetable  S<»n]» 30        " 

|>Jaking  lUO  Rrani.<  of  Vepetahles.) 

Meat 500        '' 

Tallow 80        '' 

Tea 4 

Wine 40  centiliters. 

Rum 4 

The  ration  of  wine  was  issiK^l  wIkmi  ](()ssibl(^;  in  the  con- 
trary case,  a  suhstitnte  was  made  of  rum  or  of  tea.  or  of 
sugar  and  coffee.  It  was  estimated  that  this  substitution 
would  be  necessary  one  day  in  two. 

The  Algerian  tirailleurs  could  receive  a  lation  of  sugar 
in  lieu  of  rum  and  wine;  in  this  case  they  received  no  licjuids. 

Other  substitutions  were  ]trovided  for  urgent  cases: 
ordinary  bread  could  be  replaced  hy  TOO  grams  of  l)iscuit  or 
600  grams  of  war  bread;  fresh  meat,  by  250  grams  of 
preserved  meats. 

RATION    OF    THE    .MALAGASY    TIRAILLEURS. 

Bread 750  grams. 

Fresh  Meat 400 

Beans 00 

Salt 24 

Rum 0  centiliters. 

The  75(1  grams  of  bic^ad  could  be  rejilaccd  by  750  grams 
of  rice,  and  the  00  grams  of  beans  by  00  grams  of  rice. 

The  ration  of  the  Houssa  tiiailleuis  was  identical  with 
the  above,  exct^jiting  Ihat  the  lum  was  replace*]  by  21  grams 
of  sugai-  and  10  grams  of  gi-een  cotl'ee. 

The  coolies  received  SOO  grams  of  rice  and  24  grams  of 
salt. 

The  geueral  cniiiiiiaiidiug  the  exjicdit ioiiarv  coi-])s  could 
order  ceitain  subsi  it  ut  ions  accoiding  to  circumstances. 


II i/l/iciif  (if  Ihr  ^S(lI(lif'|■  iji  the  Tropics.       '  37 

It  is  but  just  to  acknowledge  that  the  nutritive  value  of 
the  ration  wani  suffieient  in  Madagascar;  if  our  soldiers  had 
to  sutt'er  from  lack  of  food,  the  fault  was  exclusively  due  to 
the  difficulty  of  transportation. 

The  English,  Dutch,  and  Italians  have  always  had  ra- 
tions superior  to  ours:  2S  grams  of  nitrogen  and  oOS  grams 
of  carbon,  in  the  Soudan;  '2{\  grams  of  nitrogen  and  458 
grams  of  carbon  in  Abyssinia. 

^^'e  may  state  that  the  ration  of  800  grams  of  meat  is 
insufficient,  not  only  in  campaign,  but  also  in  time  of  peace. 
In  the  tropics  ''the  soldier  is  always  in  campaign;  if  not 
against  the  enemy,  at  least  against  the  climate."  It  is  true 
that  his  food  can  often  be  improved  by  the  mess  or  by  the 
paT'^^'<nlar  resources  of  the  garrison:  products  of  the  poultry- 
yard,  of  the  garden,  of  hunting  and  fishing;  but  these  supple- 
ments are  at  the  mercy  of  circumstances  and  can  not  be  de- 
pended upon  to  relieve  want  in  the  companies.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  State  to  foresee  at  all  times  the  rational  quanti- 
ties to  deliver  to  the  men.  In  ])lace  of  giving  them  the  com- 
modities, the  money  value  might  be  turned  over,  when 
known  that  it  is  an  advantage  and  a  profit  for  them  to  draw 
all  (»r  a  part  of  their  rations  fi-om  their  own  resources  or  from 
the  resources  of  the  country  they  inhabit.  The  eventual 
product  of  foreign  resources  should  never  be  discounted  in 
order  to  diminish  the  cost  of  the  ration. 

To  sum  uj),  we  agree  with  Doctor  (layi^,  that  the  two 
types  of  ration  to  adopt,  except  as  modified  in  detail  by 
circumstances,  should  be  as  follows: 

In  Peace  In  Campaisn. 

Fresh  Bread 750  grams.  750  grams. 

Fresh  Meat 400       "  500       " 

Dried  Vegetables 100       "  120       " 

Wine 45  centiliters.  50   centiliters. 

Rum a         "  3  " 


38  Hijf/iene  of  (he  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

lu  Peace.  In  Campaign. 

Sugar 50  grams.  50  grams. 

Coffee 40       "  50      '' 

Salt 25       "  25       " 

The  peact^  ration  contains  24  grams  of  nitrogen  and  .SGO 
grams  of  carbon;  that  of  war,  2G  of  nitritgen  and  :{80  of 
carbon. 

§  II.     Solid  Food. 

It  wonld  be  irrational  to  advise  what  has  been  called  in- 
digenization  by  diet;  that  is  a  condenmed  practice.  Never- 
theless, it  is  proper  to  remark  that  the  most  abstemious 
have  the  best  resisting  i)owers  in  the  inter-tropical  coun- 
tries, and  that  the  natives  have  a  diet  in  which  vegetables 
predominate. 

The  problem  of  alimentation  in  hot  countries,  says  Na- 
varre, is  less  to  give  the  system  its  ration  in  nitrogen  and 
carbon,  than  to  give  it  in  the  most  assimilable  and  least  hurt- 
ful form.  In  fact,  ixftvv  a  few  months'  sojourn  in  the  Tropics, 
due  To  meteorological  influences,  the  digestive  functions  be- 
come languid  and  the  a})j»etite  diminisht^s.  To  give  Europe- 
ans the  ration  wliicli  suits  them,  without  producing  a  fatigue 
of  the  digestive  organs,  nitrogen  will  be  demanded  in  ]>refer- 
enee  to  albuminoids  of  vegetable  origin,  and  carbon  will  be 
borrowed  from  the  hydro-carburets  much  more  than  from 
the  fats. 

A  formula  of  admirable  a]iplication  to  the  dietetics  with 
which  we  are  now  occupied  is  that  of  Trousseau.  The  most 
digestible  food  is  the  one  which  furnishes  the  greatest  (pian 
tity  of  re]»ai'atory  elements  and  requires  the  least  i)ossil»le 
work  of  the  digestive  forces.  In  recalling  this  formula  we 
will  say  that  the  su}>plying  of  food  of  the  one  kind  or  tht^ 
other  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  Not  only  must  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  food  )><■  considered,  but  also  its  more  or 
less  easv  assinnlation. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


39 


The  (iiiautity  should  be  sutticieiit ;  the  quality  should 
likewise  leave  nothing  to  be  desired.  It  is  also  important 
to  give  great  latitude  to  receiving  boards,  and  they  should 
most  attentively  superintend  the  preservation  of  the  com- 
modities in  the  store-houses. 

Bread,  in  order  to  be  eatable  and  to  furnish  a  healthful 
and  savory  food,  should  be  made  of  well-dried  tlour,  passed 
through  the  drying  stove,  and  kept,  not  in  barrels,  but  in 
perfectly  soldered  tin  boxes  furnished  with  braces  of  tough 
wood.  If  the  tiour  turn  sour  in  spite  of  these  precautions, 
the  damaged  parts  should  be  separated;  then,  after  having 
subjected  the  parts  known  to  be  good  to  the  heat  of  an  oven 
at  a  temperature  of  100  to  110  degrees,  they  should  again  be 
placed  in  the  boxes  which  have  been  carefully  cleaned. 

The  same  recommendations  apply  to  biscuit  and  war 
bread. 

The  mediocre  quality  of  the  meat,  especially  the  beef, 
obtained  in  the  colonies,  due  to  the  failure  of  pasturage,  to 
insufficient  care  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  to  the  fatigue  of 
the  animal,  often  transported  to  its  destination  by  sea  or 
brought  from  a  very  distant  region,  demands  careful  atten- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  experts  in  order  to  eliminate  animals 
with  tuberculosis  or  scurvy,  or  those  worn  out  or  preyed 
upon  by  paludism.  The  slaughtering  and  bleeding  of  the 
animals  must  also  be  carefully  supervised,  as  the  flesh  spoils 
much  more  (piickly  and  easily  than  in  Europe. 

Dried  vegetables,  beans,  lentils,  and  peas  should  not  be 
punctured  nor  shriveled;  their  cooking  ought  to  be  pro- 
longed and  preceded  by  a  soaking  for  at  Ifeast  twelve  hours. 

SaiKiines  in  oil  and  cheese  are  very  nitrogenous  and 
reparative  foods,  and  are  well  suited,  in  certain  cases,  to 
contribute  to  the  composition  of  a  campaign  ration.  They 
are  usually  well  preserved. 


40  Jhiijinic  i)f  Ihc  Suhlicr  in  flic  Tn))i\c.s. 

Fivseived  foods,  also  provided  for  the  periods  of  opera- 
tions, when  the  ronvovs  and  posts  cannot  be  revictualed 
with  the  intinitely  preferabk-  fresh  food,  are  principally  pre- 
serves of  beef,  nintton,  salted  provisions,  and  vegetable  soup. 
The  preparations  proposed,  and  those  which  are  employed 
daily,  are  innumerable.  I'nder  tile  form  of  tablets,  sausages 
of  various  kinds,  and  lozenges,  they  are  able  to  render  great 
service. 

In  their  last  campaign  against  the  Ashantees,  in  ISIKJ, 
the  English  used  The  iinironiachie  ration,  composed  of  mutton 
and  vegetables  seasoned  with  sauce,  and  the  emergency 
ration,  with  a  base  of  chocolate  and  soliditied  bouillon.  Like 
fresh  provisions,  the  i)reserved  foods  are  subject  to  altera- 
tions. It  is  necessary  to  inspect  the  boxes,  which  wari)  in 
the  store-houses,  and  to  make  sure  of  the  solder,  which  ought 
to  be  ]»ure  tin,  without  traces  of  lead. 

The  salt  foods,  bacon  and  corned  beef,  have  great  dis- 
advantages: they  tire  tlu-  stomach  and  excite  the  thirst. 
They  ought  to  tigure  only  occasionally  in  the  ration,  to  vary 
the  mess,  or,  in  case  of  necessity,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three 
issues  a  week,  as  a  complement  to  an  insufficient  ration  of 

fresh  meat. 

<\»dflsh  is  an  excellent  food  and  very  nitrogeneous.  it 
is  o]»en  to  the  same  objections  as  the  salt  meats,  and  should 
alwavs  be  dry.  odorless,  aud  without  trace  of  discoloration. 
The  cooks  slnuihl  soak  it  in  seveial  waters  before  submitting 
it  to  along  cooking  in  boiling  water. 

There  has  lately  been  much  <liscussiou  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  foods  by  cold,  aud  of  the  service  which  this  alimeu- 
tarv  innovation,  so  useful  in  time  of  peace,  might  render  in 

time  of  war.     I'l the  theatre  of  operations  it  i-s  really 

much  easier  to  tiausjiort  an  entire  train  of  wagons  loaded 
M-ith  food  thus  preserved,  than  a  herd  of  animals  on  tlie  hoof. 


Hi/f/u'iie  of  tJir  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


41 


Besides  the  pecuniary  advantage  resulting-  from  the  small 
waste,  the  economy  realized  from  the  condu<'ting  personnel 
is  considerable. 

It  would  be  curious  to  know  if,  at  the  tinie  of  an  expedi- 
tion to  a  hot  country,  this  system  of  supplying  the  columns, 
by  ships  or  by  freight  boats,  could  be  utilized,  and  during 
how  many  days  it  would  be  possible  to  thus  supply  a  column, 
which,  unable  to  find  cattle  on  the  hoof  in  the  place,  should 
receive  its  provision  of  meat  from  the  base  of  ojierations. 
There  are,  in  this  respect,  curious  experiments  to  attempt, 
the  more  easy  because  a  number  of  colonies  do  not  lack  cat- 
tle, and  because  there  are  some  among  them,  Madagascar 
for  exam})le,  whose  overproduction  will  render  most  useful 
service  to  the  mother  country  in  case  of  need. 

In  the  authoritative  opinion  of  M.  Armand  Gautier,  the 
liigh  temperatures  of  the  trojjical  zones  do  not  constitute  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  this  method  of  supplying 
columns  operating  in  the  hot  countries.  Indeed,  tlie  com- 
mission of  the  30th  of  May,  1890,  appointed  by  the  Minister 
of  War  to  study  tlie  preservation  of  meats  by  refrigeration, 
concluded  that  meats  frozen  at  10  to  15  degrees  and  then 
kej>t  in  store-houses  cooled  to  below  zero  (Centigrade)  could 
b(-  ])reserved  indefinitely,  transported  as  a  loose  cargo  in 
ordinary  wagons,  even  in  summer,  and  consumed  several 
days  after  thawing — could,  in  a  word,  furnish,  in  time  of 
peace  as  in  time  of  war.  an  excellent  supply,  having  all  the 
(]ualities  of  fresh,  muscular  flesh. 

.Meats  preserved  by  cold  have  a  comi>osition  analogous 
to  that  of  the  best  meats  and  undergo  no  sensible  change. 
The  taste  is  little  modified  and  attention  is  reciuired  to  dis- 
tinguish these  meats  from  the  fresh;  they  are  even  more 
nutritive,  quite  as  digestible,  and,  what  is  an  important  fact 
contrary  to  popular  belief,  they  do  not  jnitrefy  at  once  after 
thawing. 


42  Ifijfjieiie  of  (he  Soldier  in  Ihc  Tropics. 

The  process  of  preseiviug  by  refrigeratiou  cau  be  ap- 
plied to  game  and  poultry,  and  especially  to  eggs,  milk, 
fruits,  and  vegetables.  In  England,  milk  arrives  from  Can- 
ada, frozen  in  enormous  blocks.  Cannot  the  alimentation 
of  troops  in  campaign  in  the  colonies  lind  in  the  utilization 
of  these  methods  of  preservation,  perfectly  applicable  to  the 
store-houses  of  our  colonial  cities,  precious  resources  for 
future  expeditions? 

A  word  upon  dyiiarnogenic  or  accelerative  foods,  which 
have  to  a  high  degree  the  property  of  exciting  the  muscular 
and  nervous  systems.  They  are  calculated  to  keep  in  breath, 
for  long  hours,  men  given  up  to  intense  work. 

Heckel  has  manufactured  condensed  accelerative  ra- 
tions, containing  all  the  elements  for  the  alimentation  of 
a.  fighting  man  and  sufficing  to  give  him  a  strength  capable 
of  long  marches.  These  rations  are  composed  of  meat 
])owder  and  Kola  nuts.  They  are  in  the  form  of  a  bar  of 
chocolate  or  of  biscuits,  and  weigh  25  grams.  Their  price  is 
3  fr.  25  per  kilogram.  From  trials  made  up  to  the  present, 
it  a])i)ears  that  these  rations  can  be  utilized  at  a  given  mo- 
ment ;  but  it  is  better  to  employ  them  only  as  companions  to 
the  ordinary  rations,  on  account  of  the  dislike  and  digestive 
troubles  which  result  from  their  liabitual  use. 

We  have  recommended  the  most  attentivt-  su]»ervision 
concerning  the  (juality  of  the  components  of  the  ration. 
These  precautions  are  not  less  necessary  with  regard  to  all 
commodities,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  coming  from 
purely  local  sources.  At  military  posts,  as  on  board  ship, 
the  doctor,  or,  in  default  of  one,  an  officer,  ought  to  use  the 
utmost  care  in  regard  to  the  food — game,  vegetables,  fruit, 
and  fish  consumed  by  the  tables. 

In  tile  colonies,  there  are  ])oisonous  fruits  \vlii»  li  sliould 
be  known.     Nor  should  it  be  f(»rgotten  that  in  li(»t  count i-ies, 


Hjjtjieiie  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  43 

seA'eial  gipecies  of  tish  are  to  be  rejected  as  capable  of 
causing  trouble,  especially  at  certain  seasons. 

A  condition  concerning'  living  which  may  appear  acces- 
sory, yet  is  important  in  a  hot  country,  is  the  variety  and 
proper  preparation  of  food.  It  is  not  what  one  eats,  but 
what  one  digests  and  assimilates  that  nourishes  and  repairs. 
In  countries  where  loss  of  a])petite  is  experienced  the  best 
stimulant  to  oppose  to  the  inertia  of  the  stomach  will  always 
be  the  skill  of  a  good  cook.  Now,  without  going  into  too 
much  refinement,  a  post  commander  should  superintend  the 
cuisine  of  the  men  and  direct  the  inexperienced  European 
cooks  and,  with  even  more  reason,  the  native  Vatels.  He 
should  satisfy  himself,  personally,  in  regard  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  food  is  prepared,  and  as  to  its  cleanliness,  cooking, 
and  seasoning.  He  should  remember  the  precautions  to  be 
taken  with  regard  to  salads,  cucumbers,  radishes,  and  other 
products  usually  consumed  in  a  raw  state.  Orders  should 
be  given  and  strictly  carried  out  that  they  should  never 
appear  upon  the  tables  without  having  been  thoroughly 
washed  and  stripped  of  the  least  traces  of  impurities  which 
might  conceal  the  germs  of  dysentery  and  typhoid.  Even 
more  than  in  France,  it  is  desirable  that  the  soldiers  should 
have  utensils  in  good  condition  and  scrui)ulously  clean. 

Finally,  the  meals  should  be  regular  and  taken  at  the 
same  hours  in  i)roportioned  (piantities.  Regular  habits 
should  not  be  unnecessarily  changed.  An  excess  of  food 
may  be  attended  by  serious  consequences,  resulting  in 
gastric  embarrassments  and  slight  fevers. 

§  III.     Liquid  Aliments. 

Wine,  brandy,  tea,  and  coffee  constitute,  with  water, 
the  only  beverages  useful  in  the  alimentation  of  troops. 

Wine  is  an  excellent  and  hygienic  drink,  and  we  have 
seen  that  it  forms  part  of  the  ration  of  the  colonial  soldier. 


44  Hi/gienc  of  liic  Soldier  in  llw  Trojiirs. 

Tlu'  troops  in  France  do  n<»t  receive  wine  in  time  of 
peace;  the  heavy  war  ration  ]>rovi<les  for  the  daily  issue  of 
25  centiliters. 

In  the  colonies  wine  is  issued  daily;  th«^  ration  is  40  cen- 
tiliters in  ordinary  times,  but  1ms  often  been  increased  to  50 
and  00  centiliters  in  cami»ai«>n. 

Wine,  containing  alcohol,  tannin,  glycerine,  sugar,  vege- 
table acids,  and  salts  of  iron,  soda,  and  lime,  is  at  once  ex- 
citant and  tonic.  It  quenches  thirst  very  well,  especially 
when  mixed  with  water,  and  sustains  and  revives  the 
strength  on  occasion.  For  all  these  reasons  we  are  of  the 
opinion  that  it  has  its  marked  ])lace  in  the  ration  of  the 
colonial  soldier. 

The  wine  should  be  of  excellent  (piality  with  no  alcohol 
added.  It  should  not  be  "doctored"  n<u-  adulterated  iy  any 
way  with  poisonous  substances,  such  as  litharge,  salicylic 
acid,  fuscine,  etc.  It  ought  to  contain  from  12  to  i:>  per  cent 
of  alcohol,  as  that  (juantity  is  indispensable  to  ])reserve  it  in 
a  hot  country.  Unfortunately,  these  conditions  are  very 
difficult  to  exact  rigidly  from  the  dealers,  on  account  of  the 
purchase  price.  The  wine  may  be  very  accei)table,  at  least 
to  the  taste,  when  it  i&  received  by  the  colonial  boards;  but 
it  deteriorates  ra]>idly  under  the  heat;  it  sours  in  the  casks. 
It  has  been  suggested  to  have  it  delivered  in  bottles  packed 
in  boxes;  the  trial  has  succeeded  in  the  Soudan;  but  it  can 
be  a  (piestiou  of  small  quantities  only,  to  supi>ly  the  weak 
etieclives.  I'asteuri/.ation  by  cold,  by  the  Chamberland 
filter  system,  might  be  of  service  if  it  were  more  practical 
and  less  burdenscmie. 

When  the  resources  permit,  on  days  of  march  or  fatigue, 
there  is  no  harm  in  doubling  the  wine  ration  at  one  of  the 
meals,  as  is  the  custom  al><»ai(l  sliij). 

Tartisans  of  wine,  we  are  not  at  all  so  of  rum  or  brandy, 


Hi/giene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  45 

whether  ashore  or  at  sea.  This  is  a  beverage  to  be  reserved 
for  the  siek  and  for  those  suffering  from  cold  or  wet.  Even 
then  it  should  only  be  given  mixed  with  an  infusion  of  tea  or 
coffee.  Of  these  last,  on  the  contrary,  the  (inantities  issued 
should  be  very  large,  for  there  can  be  n<»  bounty  more  profit- 
able to  the  man  than  the  greatest  possible  allowance  of  tea, 
coffee,  and  sugar.  AVhen  the  wine  gives  out.  it  is  still  with 
this  form  of  alcoholized  infusions,  and  not  with  i»ure  alcohol, 
that  the  ordinary  beverage  should  be  replaced. 

To  do  otherwise  is  to  seem  to  point  out  to  the  soldiers 
the  necessity  of  jture  brandy  in  the  alimentation  of  che  hard- 
working man,  which  is  both  contrary  to  hygiene  and  an 
encouragement  to  alcoholism. 

In  our  time,  the  tendency  to  consume  alcohol  of  all 
qualities  and  at  every  opportunity  is,  unfortunately,  only  too 
extended,  and  the  best  means  of  preventing  its  abuse  later 
would  be  to  prove  to  the  men  that  the  use  of  pure  alcohol  is 
in  no  sense  necessary  to  the  health  and  that  it  may  be 
dangerous.  An  evident  fact,  and  one  which  we  have  brought 
to  light  in  the  statement  of  the  causes  of  the  diseases  of  the 
soldiers  in  hot  countries,  is  the  indisputable  influence  of 
alcoholic  habits,  chietiy  the  use  of  rum.  in  the  production  of 
ha^maturic  bilious  fever,  hepatitis,  and  sun-stroke,  and  in  the 
aggravation  of  enterocolitis. 

§  IV.     PotahJc  Water. 

It  is  a  current  custom  among  the  soldiers  to  charge  to 
the  account  of  the  drinking-waters  consumed  in  this  or  that 
colony  almost  all  the  affections  contracted  beyond  the  seas. 
The  natives  in  man_A-  places  agree  with  them  in  this.  In 
Upper  Tong-King,  the  Annamites  formally  accuse  certain 
waters  of  causing  a  swelling  of  the  spleen  when  drunk  in  the 
crude  state. 

Now,  with  tin-  exception  of  fevers  and  ]»aludism,  the 


46  Hygiene  of  the  Suhlier  in  the  Tropics. 

genus  of  which,  from  all  evidence,  are  taken  up  in  the  air  b,y 
the  respiratory  organs,  it  is  certain  that  the  popular  belief 
is  well  founded. 

A  comniauder  who  can  provide  his  men  with  an  abso- 
lutely potable  water  may  be  almost  sure,  in  all  circum- 
stances, of  {)reserving  them  from  dysentery,  hepatitis,  ty- 
phoid fever,  and  cholera,  and  of  protecting  them  against 
the  less  grave  affections  of  which  the  eggs  of  ttenia  and 
ascaris,  the  germs  of  fllaria,  the  fillets  of  blood-suckers,  etc., 
are  the  most  frequent  causes. 

When  one  has  seen  the  ravages  occasioned  by  diseases 
of  hydric  origin,  he  is  convinced  that  in  peace,  as  in  war,  and 
even  more  in  the  colonies  than  in  France,  the  (luestion  of 
water  is  capital.  To  the  same  degree  as  the  active  prophy- 
laxis of  malaria,  it  forms  a  stratum  of  the  foundation  upon 
which  good  and  true  military  hygiene  must  rest. 

Always,  in  all  circumstances,  a  commandant  should 
ascertain  if  the  water  is  potable  and  have  means  at  his 
disi>osal  to  render  it  pure  or  to  improve  it. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF    POTABLE  WATER. 

A  potable  water  is  a  water  which  is  pure  from  both  a 
l»hysico-chemical  and  bacteriological  point  of  view.  These 
two  conditions  are  absolutely  indispensable. 

Physically  and  chemically,  a  pure  water  is  fresh,  clear, 
odorless,  and  tasteless,  ^>getables  cook  well  in  it  and  soap 
lathers. 

\\\  this  standard,  Ihe  type  of  ]>otable  water  is  that  from 
a  I  iinning  sjtring;  then  comes  rain-water  caught  directly  at 
the  time  of  its  fall  in  a  drinking-glass;  the  watcM-  of  clear 
rivers,  collected  from  the  mi<ldle  of  the  stieam  far  from  the 
accumulations  which  may  gather  upon  its  banks,  or  at  least 
above  such  agglomerations.  The  water  of  deep  wells,  cov- 
ered and  removed  from  habitations,  is  also,  when  thev  are 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


47 


well  kept,  a  chemiraily  potable  water.  Finally,  distilled 
water,  when  it  has  been  aerated,  likewise  represents  an 
excellent  type  of  potable  water,  utilized  aboard  ships. 

The  senses  and  culinary  and  domestic  use  enable  one  to 
speedily  discover  if  the  water  from  these  various  sources 
possesses  the  necessary  qualities  to  give  it  the  physico- 
I'hemical  value  of  a  jiotable  water.  Reciprocally,  it  is  easy 
to  reject  at  the  outset  those  which  do  not  fulfill  these  condi- 
tions; such  are  the  waters  of  marshes,  ponds,  torrents,  rivers 
which  are  muddy  and  foul,  the  water  of  certain  springs  and 
of  certain  wells,  which  does  not  cook  vegetables  and  makes 
no  lather  with  soap,  because  it  is  silenitic — that  is  to  say, 
charged  with  sul]»hate  of  lime. 

It  is  not  sutticient  for  a  water  to  be  pure  from  the  phys- 
ico-chemieal  standpoint  to  make  it  potable;  it  must  also  be 
pure  from  the  bacteriological  standpoint — that  is  to  say, 
it  must  contain  no  foreign  organic  matter,  especially  any 
pathogenic  organism.  Now,  the  waters  w^hich  are  purest  in 
appearance  may  have  been  defiled  or  contaminated,  what- 
ever their  source,  during  their  i)assage  or  their  stay  upon 
roofs,  in  conduits,  in  reservoirs,  closed  or  open.  This  pollu- 
tion of  water  chemically  ]>ure  may  result  fiom  infiltrations 
from  the  neighboring  soil  or  from  germs  ditfused  in  the 
atmosphere,  whether  under  usual  conditions  or  in  time  of 
epidemics.  A  bacteriological  examination  alone  can  detect 
the  presence  of  these  pathogenic  micro  organisms;  but  with- 
out having  recourse  to  a  microscopic  analysis,  the  impurity 
of  any  water  whatever  can  be  discovered  and  the  presence  of 
suspected  organic  matters  revealed  if  they  are  sufficiently 
dangerous  to  necessitate  the  rejection  of  the  water.  This 
result  is  obtained  by  one  of  the  following  methods: 

1.  A  very  concentrated  solution  of  tannin  (reagent  of 
Hager)  is  prepared;  20  grams  of  this  solution  is  added  to  a 


48  JJ i/ijiciui  of  ilte  l^ohlier  in  the  Tropics. 

large  glass  of  water  and  allowed  to  stand.  If  tbe  water 
becomes  tnibid  in  less  tlian  an  honr.  it  ninst  be  rejected. 

2.  Pour  into  a  glass  of  water  two  or  tbree  drops  of  a 
1:1000  solution  of  permanganate  of  potasb.  If  tbe  solution 
becomes  discolored — tbat  is  to  say,  los(^s  its  beautiful  roseate 
tint,  tbe  water  is  not  potable. 

A  furtber  examination  is  necessary,  if  it  is  desirt^l  to  be 
entirely  informed  and  to  seek  tbe  nature  of  tbe  organic 
elements,  suspected  or  otberwise.  contained  in  tbe  water,  or 
tbe  presence  of  tbis  or  that  microbe. 

It  is  tberefore  easy  to  ascertain  tbe  (luality  of  any  water 
under  any  circumstances  in  wiiicb  one  may  be  ]»laced.  and  to 
know-,  in  a  word,  wbetber  or  not  a  water  is  potable. 

MEANS    OF  PURIFICATION. 

It  sometimes  bappens,  es]>ecially  in  tbe  colonies,  and 
princijtally  in  cami)aign,  tbat  tbe  commanding  officer  will 
liave  neitber  tbe  time  nor  the  means  to  have  tbe  water  an- 
alyzed; he  will  then  have  doubts  about  its  quality,  from 
ignorance  of  its  source  or  from  other  unknown  conditions  as 
to  its  origin.  Sometimes,  tbe  circumstances  in  which  be  is 
l)laced,  as  in  an  epidemic  ov  in  defective  sanitary  conditions. 
imi)ose  increased  ])i-ecautions.  Finally,  it  may  be  tbat  tln^ 
troo]is  have  at  tbeii-  disjtosal  only  a  water  which  is  mani- 
festly not  ]»otable.  as  the  watei-  of  a  ])ond  or  of  an  unclean 
oi-  badly  situated  cisteiii. 

In  all  these  cases  the  absolute  puiification  of  the  liipiid 
given  to  the  troops,  for  all  alimentary  uses,  becomes  a 
necessity  of  tbe  first  ordei-.  How  tan  tbis  imj»ortant 
]»r(tblem  be  ]»racti<  ally  solved? 

There  are  a  gi-eat  man\  ways  of  ]>urifyiug  watei-,  we  will 
l>oint  them  out  briefly. 

f>tee])ing  in  alum  has  l»een  einitloyed  in  tlu^  exti-eme 
Oiieiit  fi-oin  time  iniiiicHiorial.      It  is  of  service  in  cduntries 


lii/(/i('iie  of  tlie  SuhJicr  in  Ihe  Tropics. 


49 


where  the  wateis  aie  veiv  eaithy;  but,  in  (nder  that  this 
process  may  be  effective,  it  is  necessary  that  the  df'pot  where 
the  alum  is  made  should  have  time  to  produce  it.  Now,  as 
M.  Laveran  observes,  the  soldier  needs  a  rapid  process  for 
purifying- water.  Steeping  in  alum  destroj's  or  precipitates 
only  a  part  of  the  germs  in  suspension. 

The  other  processes  heretofore  employed  have  given 
only  incomplete  results.  These  processes,  but  little  used  in 
campaign,  are:  sterilization  by  heat;  distillation,  which  re- 
quires special  preparations,  cumbersome  and  costly;  boiling, 
which  the  army  doctors  have  recommended  for  the  past 
hundred  years,  while  admitting  the  inconvenience  and  dif- 
ficulty of  execution. 

The  same  objections  apply  to  fllration  with  filters  of  all 
kinds,  however  improved  they  may  be,  heretofore  utilized. 
They  are  costly,  fragile,  and  unmanageable. 

Charcoal  and  amianthus  filters  (Maignen,  Braver)  clar- 
ify the  water,  but  permit  the  passage  of  pathogenic  germs. 

The  Chamberland  filter,  called  the  Campaign,  is  heavy, 
difficult  to  transport  with  the  column  in  a  hot  country, 
and  subject  to  deteriorations  which  rapidly  render  it  un- 
serviceable. 

Trials  made  during  the  Dahomey  and  Madagascar 
expeditions  show  that  this  filter  is  useful  only  in  garrison. 

Besides,  neither  the  Chamberland  nor  Berkefeld  filter 
can  be  used  by  isolated  men.  The  traveling  filter  (Chamber- 
land  system),  which  can  be  taken  apart  and  is  contained  in  a 
tin  box,  and  is  composed  of  one  or  more  hougirs  joined  in  a 
collector,  is  too  delicate  and  complicated  for  the  soldier.  At 
most  it  might  be  suitable  for  officers  and  explorers  supplied 
with  spare  bougies. 

In  Dahomey,  several  filters  of  various  models  were 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  senior  commanding  officer; 


50  lli/(jieue  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

iiuiong  them  weie  the  Chambeiland  and  Maignen,  a  system 
consisting  of  a  sort  of  funnel  furnished  with  a  felt  dia- 
phragm. It  was  very  quickly  seen  that  the  Chamberland 
filters,  while  useful  in  a  hospital,  a  stationary  ambulance,  or 
a  detached  post,  were  unpractical  for  troops  in  campaign; 
the  bougies  became  foul  and  the  best  of  cleaning  did  not  re- 
store the  filters  to  their  primitive  condition.  The  officers 
gave  the  preference  to  the  individual  filters,  the  canteen 
filters,  or  the  squad  filters  of  charcoal  and  amianthus.  There 
are  several  practical  points  in  favor  of  the  Maignen  filter.  If 
there  should  chance  to  be  a  deterioration  of  the  apparatus, 
warning  is  inmiediately  given  by  the  black  color  of  the  liquid 
and  the  damage  can  be  repaired.  It  is  also  easy  to  manu- 
facture all  the  parts  of  a  similar  apparatus,  if  there  is  a 
reserve  of  amianthus  and  charcoal. 

At  the  time  of  the  Madagascar  campaign,  it  was  not 
known  what  filter  to  recommend,  and  none  was  adopted. 
The  ministerial  instructions  prescribed  the  clarification  of 
turbid  water  by  the  use  of  alum,  by  straining  it  through  a 
cloth,  and  by  boiling.  The  daily  ration  of  tea  was  designed 
to  insure  the  latter  efl:ect.  For  boiling  the  water  special 
pots  were  provided;  it  was  never  to  be  boiled  in  the  pots  used 
for  making  soup,  as  the  water  then  contracts  a  taste  of  burnt 
meat,  w^hich  prevents  the  men  from  drinking  it. 

These  measures,  the  use  of  alum,  straining,  and  boiling, 
wei'C  often  neglected,  because  it  takes  a  great  deal  of  time  to 
make  boiled  water  cool. 

Distillatory  apparatus  impose  a  great  expense  for  pur- 
chase and  setting  up;  their  managenuMit  retjuii-es  expe- 
rienced men,  and  their  uiainleiiance  is  costly.  They  can 
be  employed  only  at  the  base  of  operations,  and  should  be 
installed  at  the  beginning  of  the  cami»aign,  before  the  arri- 
val of  the  tro(q>s. 


Hygiene  of  ilie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  51 

Admiral  Bienaim^  made  an  excellent  use  of  a  distilla- 
tory apparatus  which  had  existed  for  a  long  time  at  Tama- 
tave;  he  caused  it  to  be  set  up  at  Majunga,  in  1895,  and  the 
soldiers  of  the  expeditionary  corps  benefited  by  it. 

PERMANGANATE    REDUCING-FII^TER. 

Impressed  for  a  long  time  with  the  inconveniences  in- 
herent in  the  different  methods  proposed  and  used  in  turn 
for  the  purification  of  drinking-water  for  troops  in  campaign 
in  the  colonies,  our  colleague,  M.  Lapeyr^re,  principal  phar- 
macist, has  undertaken  a  series  of  laboratory  studies  which 
have  led  to  a  most  happy  result. 

Taking  for  his  calculations  the  essays  of  Burlureaux, 
Girard,  Bordas,  Babes,  Langlois,  Girardin,  etc.,  upon  the  use 
of  powders  with  a  base  of  permanganate,  he  succeeded  in 
deducing  from  their  combinations  a  process  which  we  must 
particularly  describe. 

Principle. — This  process  may  be  considered  as  the  syn- 
thesis of  two  methods  of  purification — sterilization  and 
filtration. 

The  rapid  and  complete  sterilization  of  water  with  a 
special  powder,  described  below,  has  been  demonstrated  by 
experiments  made  at  Kochefort,  in  the  bacteriological  lab- 
oratory, and  at  Paris,  by  MM.  Laveran  and  Hanriot,  of  the 
Academy  of  Medicine. 

This  powder  is  thus  composed: 

Quicklime* 0  gr.  05 

('rystallized  alum,  dry 0    ''     12 

Soda  carbonate,  dry 0    ''     10 

Permanganate  of  potash.  .  .  .  /• 0    "     08 

Total , 0  gr.  ^0 

*('hitii.r  v'lvc  delitee. 


62  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

These  30  centigrams  represent  the  average  dose  to  the 
liter,  which  may  be  given  by  a  little  measure  of  the  same 
capacity. 

Alum  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  sterilizing 
powder,  as  it  is  necessary  to  clarify  the  water  of  rivers.  This 
acid  salt  forcibly  combines  with  the  carbonate  of  soda  and  a 
small  quantity  of  lime,  alkaline  substances,  which,  in  the 
jiresence  of  water,  enter  into  chemical  action  with  the  double 
sulphate  of  alumina  and  of  potash. 

The  filtration,  the  object  of  which  is  to  remove  with 
the  earthy  excess  in  suspension  in  the  water  the  excess  of 
reagent,  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  reduciug-fllter  of  the 
greatest  simplicity,  based  upon  the  proi)erty  possessed  by 
woolen  texture  impregnated  with  oxide  of  manganese,  to 
reduce  the  permanganate  of  the  reagent  in  excess  in  the 
water  to  be  purified. 

Mode  of  Operation. — By  the  aid  of  a  little  measure,  the 
sterilizing  powder  is  thrown  into  a  carafe  of  water  about 
five-sixths  full. 

The  liquid,  which  has  become  rose-violet,  is  shaken,  and 
if  at  the  end  of  five  minutes  the  color  persists,  it  only  remains 
to  filter  the  water  by  aid  of  the  reducing-filter. 

If  the  rose  color  of  the  liquid  disajipears,  a  second 
measure  of  the  sterilizing  powder  is  added;  and  this  process 
is  continued  until  the  rose  jxMsists. 

^yhen  iJiis  persistence  of  the  ro^e  Is  ohiitined.  it  is  an  assurance 
lltal  the  water  is  sterilized. 

Then  it  is  filleicd.  The  filtering  nicdiuui  is  very  simjdy 
(•(Mnjiosed  of  fiannel  with  a  long  nap,  im]iregnated  with 
sesquioxide  of  manganese,  and  then  rolled  \\\)  like  a  cigar 
and  encased  in  a  box  of  small  dimensions.  This  metallic 
box  is  of  alum i num.  fi-oni  (I  to  7  centimeters  long  by  IS  milli- 
nieteis  in  dianieter.      It  is  cqien  at  one  end  and  closed  ;il  tliC' 


Hygiene  of  Uie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


53 


other  by  a  metal  ring,  through  Nvhich  runs  a  short  pipe,  to 
which  is  fitted  a  rubber  tube  to  act  as  a  siphou.  In  the 
colonies  the  rubber  tube  would  be  replaced  by  one  of 
impermeable  fabric. 

The  woolen  flannel  of  the  Pyrenees  gives  good  results. 
It  is  made  reductive  by  alternate  saturations  and  cleansings 
of  permanganate  of  potash. 

The  thickness  of  the  filtering  mass  is  represented  in  this 
filter  by  the  length  of  the  box  used,  and  the  reducing  power 
by  the  degree  of  purity  of  the  wool  and  the  proportion  of 
oxide  which  it  retains.  As  to  the  rapidity  of  the  filtration, 
it  naturally  depends  upon  the  degree  of  permeability  of  the 
texture  and  also  upon  the  length  of  the  rubber  tube.  For 
the  individual  filter,  the  rapidity  is  sufficient  to  obtain  a 
liter  in  fifteen  minutes  on  an  average.  In  order  to  filter  the 
water  which  has  been  sterilized,  as  indicated  by  the  per- 
sistence of  the  rose  color  after  the  addition  of  the  sterilizing 
powder,  the  filter  is  plunged  in  it  and  the  siphon  primed  by 
aspiration.  It  only  remains  to  collect  the  water  in  a  glass, 
a  measure,  or  a  carafe.  The  water  which  flows  from  the 
tube,  clear  and  limpid,  is  absolutely  potable. 

To  clean  the  filter  there  is  the  same  simplicity  of  process. 
It  is  sufficient  to  withdraw  the  flannel  from  the  box  and 
to  wash  it,  rubbing  it  betw  een  the  hands,  after  having  dipped 
it  into  pure  water  or  water  to  which  the  sterilizing  powder 
has  been  added.  It  is  then  rolled  up  again  like  a  cigar  and 
replaced  in  its  receptacle. 

Scientific  Value. — This  system  has  been  submitted  to  the 
''Conseil  superieur  de  santt'  de  la  Marine,"  which  has  ac- 
cepted it  in  principle.  The  Academy  of  Medicine  also  took 
up  the  question  and  appointed  a  commission,  which  made  a 
favorable  report. 

MM.  Laveran  and  Hahriot  are  satisfied  that  the  patho- 


54  I] ijgiene  of  Ihe  Soldirr  in  the  Tropics. 

genie  microbes  which  most  often  contaminate  water  (bacil- 
lus of  typhoid  and  spirillum  of  cholera)  are  destroyed  in 
water  purified  by  this  process.  Certain  sporular  microbes 
resist,  but  they  are  always  non-pathogenic. 

On  the  whole,  sterilization  by  this  simple  and  really 
practical  process  is  sufficient. 

Some  criticisms  of  detail  have  been  made  regarding  the 
composition  of  the  powder,  which,  however,  has  been 
modified. 

It  might  be  feared  that  the  powder  would  be  altered  by 
the  air,  or  would  obstruct  the  pores  of  the  filter  by  the  pre- 
cipitates, and  thus  rapidly  diminish  the  delivery.  Nothing 
is  easier  than  to  i)rotect  the  powder  from  the  air  by  a  well- 
closed  box. 

The  fouling  of  the  woolen  flannel  is  not  to  be  feared.  It 
is  easily  cleaned  and  its  daily  washing  ought  to  be  an  obliga- 
tion. Has  it  not  been  said,  with  reason,  that  the  best  filters 
are  those  which  became  fouled  most  easily,  because  this  is 
the  proof  that  they  play  their  part  perfectly,  and  therefore 
im])0se  the  duty  of  cleaning  them  often? 

The  action  of  the  sterilizing  powder  upon  metals  is  not 
to  be  feared.  It  does  not  attack  inoxidizable  metals,  and 
the  deposit  of  oxide  of  manganese  which  may  form  upon 
these  metals  is  absolutely  inoffensive  and  can  be  easily 
removed  by  washing. 

With  ]\I.  Laveran,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Lapeyr^re 
system  marks  a  real  ])rogress  in  the  imjiortant  question  of 
the  purification  of  water. 

Application  to  Troops  in  Catnpaitjii. — The  individual  oi- 
pocket  filter,  such  as  has  just  been  described.  i)ossesses  the 
following  desirable  qualities;  absolute  decoloration  of  the 
l>ermanganate  of  ])otash,  rajiidity  of  filtration,  limi)idity  of 
the  filtered  li(|iiid,  lightness,  solidity,  and  ease  (»f  iiKUii]Mila- 
tion  and  cleansing. 


]] il'jicnc  of  tlic  Soldier  in  lltr  Trnpir.'^. 


55 


It  was  a  question  of  making'  it  practical  for  the  soldier 
in  cani]>aign,  and  M.  Lapeyr^re  thinks  he  has  succeeded. 

The  soldier's  filter  differs  from  the  ])ocket  filter  only  in 
its  greater  length.  It  can  be  put  into  the  canteen  of  the 
regulation  model,  whence  its  name — ''hidon-fiJfreJ^ 

It  is  fixed  either  permanently  or  temporarily  to  the  cork 
of  the  large  opening  of  the  canteen  by  a  metal  aspirator 
tube.  This  tube  passes  through  the  cork  and  extends  several 
centimeters  outside. 

The  canteen  also  has  an  inoxidizable  metal  flagon  fixed 
on  one  of  its  faces,  with  a  capacity  of  about  35  cubic  cen- 
timeters, containing  the  permanganate  powder;  a  little 
measure  is  hooked  on  the  interior  of  the  hermetically  sealed 
cover  of  the  flagon. 

In  case  of  a  beverage  which  requires  neither  sterilization 
nor  filtration,  the  filter  remains  closed  and  the  soldier 
drinks  from  the  ordinary  opening  of  the  canteen. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  filter  the  water,  the  soldier  fills  his 
canteen,  pours  in  a  measure  of  the  permanganate  powder, 
puts  the  filter  in  place  and  shakes  the  canteen  violently. 
He  can  drink  directly  from  the  canteen,  or,  after  putting  on 
the  aspirating  tube  and  placing  the  canteen  upon  an  elevated 
place,  his  knapsack  for  example,  he  can  start  the  flow  of 
water  by  aspiration  and  receive  the  sterilized  and  filtered 
water  in  his  quart  cup. 

After  the  canteen  has  been  used  about  ten  times,  the 
filtering  medium  should  be  withdrawn  and  cleaned.  This 
can  be  done  while  resting  during  the  halts;  the  canteen  itself 
should  be  i)urged  of  all  deposit  and  washed  with  water  con- 
taining one  or  two  measures  of  powder,  to  destroy  the 
organic  matter  which  might  adhere  to  the  walls. 

AI.  Lapeyrere  has  busied  himself  with  remedying  certain 
material   imperfections  pointed   out   in   the   report   of  the 


56  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Academic  Commission.  It  will  be  possible,  for  example,  to 
tind  a  way  to  protect  the  powder  from  the  rain  and  to  pre- 
vent the  box  from  forming  a  troublesome  projection.  It  is 
easy  to  keep  the  apparatus  in  repair;  it  must  be  acknowl- 
edged, however,  that  the  purification  of  the  water  intended 
for  drinking  will  be  best  assured  if  it  is  made  for  a  group  of 
men,  as  a  s(iuad  or  a  company.  If  it  is  left  to  individual 
initiative,  without  supervision,  it  will  yield  the  least  desir- 
able results;  it  is  the  sanie  with  the  most  elementary  hy- 
gienic prescriptions.  As  surely  as  the  methodical  use  of  an 
efficacious  process  is  prescribed  by  authority,  cases  will  be 
seen  where,  escaping  all  sui>ervision,  the  soldier  will  con- 
sume non-puritted  water. 

The  great  merit  of  the  reducing  filter  is  its  extreme  sim- 
plicity. It  is  at  ^everybody's  door;  it  can  be  purchased  or 
constructed  at  little  expense ;  it  can  be  operated  and  cleaned 
with  the  greatest  ease. 

The  necessary  materials  to  make  one  can  be  found  every- 
where and  always.  There  is  not  a  colony  whose  market  can- 
not furnish  the  sterilizing  powder  and  prejtared  woolen 
flannel,  or  at  least  fine  and  well-cleaned  sponges. 

The  most  simple  filters  have  always  been  the  best.  The 
troops  in  Abyssinia  were  recommended  to  take  a  small  linen 
cloth,  make  a  sack  of  it,  fill  it  with  powdered  charcoal,  join 
to  it  a  tube  ]»lunged  to  the  middle  of  the  filtering  substance, 
di]»  the  sack  in  the  water  1(»  be  filtered,  and  suck  the  water 
through  the  tube. 

The  system  we  ha\e  just  studied  is  more  scientitic.  but 
(piite  as  simple.  We  believe  it  is  destined  to  render  great 
service  to  the  colonial  troojis,  in  the  gairisou  towns,  and, 
above  all,  during  expeditions. 

rp  to  the  present,  fillialion  alone  lias  uol  been  able  to 
act    u]M»n    the  soluble  luorbid   organic   agculs.   sucli   as   lln' 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


57 


toxiiies  and  the  alkaloids.  The  permanganate  of  potash 
connected  with  filtration  has  a  very  great  advantage  in 
improving  water  for  drinking. 

Alimentary  hygiene  is  easier  to  observe  than  the  hy- 
giene of  habitation.  Individual  initiative  is  here  all  power- 
ful, and  it  can  not  be  too  much  developed  by  teaching  each 
one  what  he  ought  to  do  to  avoid  the  diseases  whose  germs 
are  absorbed  bv  the  digestive  organs. 


68  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Clothing  and  Equipment. 

"Not  to  get  cold  is  to  avoid  almost  certainly  all  the 
causes  of  disease."  These  words  of  General  Wolseley  ought 
to  be  inscribed  in  the  rooms  of  our  colonial  barracks  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  English  inscribe  upon  their  wharves  in 
India:     ''Beware  of  the  Sun.'' 

Indeed,  if  certain  parts  of  the  apparel,  like  the  helmet, 
are  intended  to  prevent  sunstroke;  if  the  shoes  ought  to  as- 
sure the  protection  of  the  feet  and  the  lower  limbs  against 
insects  and  the  asperities  of  the  soil,  the  principal  role  of  the 
clothing  is  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  heat  accumulated  by 
the  body  within.  It  is  precisely  because  one  is  warm  and  is 
often  in  a  perspiration  in  the  colonies  that  one  needs  to  be 
covered;  without  overloading  the  body  with  too  heavy  and 
thick  materials,  it  is  necessary  to  cover  it  to  avoid  the 
currents  of  air.  A  too  rajiid  evaporation  of  the  perspira- 
tion from  the  surface  of  the  body  chills  it;  there  is  the 
danger.  A  man  who  is  cold  is  on  the  verge  of  disease;  he  is 
more  susceptible  to  simple  diarrho-a,  to  dysentery,  to  hepa- 
titis, to  an  access  of  fever,  and  to  physical  disorders  gener- 
ally. They  declare  themselves  in  him  as  soon  as  a  sufficient 
cause  shows  itself;  if  they  already  exist  in  a  latent  state, 
their  evolution  is  inunediately  accentuated. 

The  clothing  of  the  soldier  in  the  colonies  has  been  the 
object  of  wise  modilications;  it  might  be  improved  still  more 
and  be  more  specialized  in  certain  circumstances.  Notwith- 
standing the  imi)rovements  made,  the  last  word  has  not  been 
said. 


Ilj/niene  of  the  Soldier  in  lire  Tropics. 


59 


§  I.     KuJes  of  the  Hygiene  of  Clothing. 

The  principal  rules  of  the  hygiene  of  clothing  for  the 
colonies  may  be  stated  as  follows: 

Wear  warmer  clothing  in  the  evening  and  at  night  than 
in  the  day;  always  wear  a  flannel  band  at  night;  wear  a 
helmet  or  equivalent  head-covering  from  morning  to  even- 
ing; have  extra  shoes  to  wear  after  the  march;  use  an  equip- 
ment which  neither  overloads  nor  compresses  any  part  of 
the  body. 

It  is  not  long  since  soldiers  in  the  far  East  were  clothed 
almost  the  same  as  in  Europe.  Before  1800,  the  colonial 
troops  were  furnished  with  no  light  clothing  except  white 
trousers. 

During  the  campaigns  in  China  and  in  Mexico,  the 
troops  made  use  of  a  cap  covered  with  white  linen  and  with 
a  havelock  of  the  same  material. 

Later,  in  Cochin-China,  they  adopted  the  straw  hat  and 
the  native  salal-o.  Shortly  afterwards  a  trial  was  made,  for 
the  garrisons  of  Senegal  and  Cochin-China  only,  of  a  paletot 
of  special  flannel,  for  ordinary  wear. 

In  1873,  the  large  flannel  belt  was  given  to  all  the 
soldiers  in  the  colonies. 

It  was  not  until  1878  that  really  important  measures 
were  adopted.  The  different  head-coverings  were  replaced 
by  the  cork  helmet  covered  with  white  linen;  the  cap  was 
kept  only  for  morning  and  evening  wear,  night  guard-duty, 
and  traveling.  The  flannel  jacket  was  made  regulation  for 
all  our  possessions.  Flannel  trousers  were  tried  and  subse- 
quently adopted.  The  large  red  belt  was  replaced  by  a 
small  white  one  worn  directly  over  the  flannel  vest. 

In  1883,  the  flannel  dolman  was  adopted  for  the  use  of 
officers  and  adjutants.  It  was  the  day  dress  for  drills  and 
campaign,  the  dolman  of  France  being  always  reserved  for 
full  dress. 


60  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  llie  Tropics. 

By  a  decision,  in  1886,  every  man  in  the  colonies  received 
for  wear  during  tlie  daytime  a  paletot  of  linen  or  cotton 
twill  of  a  brown  color.  With  the  helmet,  the  trousers,  the 
gaiters  of  cloth,  and  the  flannel  belt,  was  at  last  realized  the 
practical  clothing  long  since  adopted  by  the  other  European 
nations  for  their  colonial  soldiers. 

The  officers  also  received,  as  a  day  uniform,  the  white 
linen  jacket,  to  be  replaced  on  occasion  by  the  blue  flannel 
dolman. 

Thus  it  took  more  than  twenty  years  to  accomplish  this  ■ 
great   reform   in    hygienic    clothing,    which    an    ill  advised 
economy  had  postponed,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  health 
of  our  troops. 

For  the  campaign  in  Madagascar,  garments  of  flannel 
and  of  brown  linen  were  adopted,  the  flrst  for  evening  and 
the  second  for  day  wear.  In  the  evening  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  replace  tlie  linen  by  a  warmer  material,  espe- 
cially, in  the  case  of  the  garments  which  i)rotect  the  stomach. 
Every  country  may  require  some  modifications  in  the 
clothing.  In  a  hot  country,  the  object  of  clothing,  at  least 
during  the  day,  is  to  protect  the  body  from  the  solar  heat, 
while  permitting  its  own  heat  to  be  emitted.  Now,  after 
Coulier,  cotton  and  linen  have  a  much  greater  emissive 
power  than  wool;  but  they  absorb  humidity  rapidly,  and  the 
body  they  cover  cools  rapidly  if  it  is  in  a  perspiration.  As 
to  colors,  white  absorbs  heat  the  least,  black  having  the 
maximum  absorbing  power. 

At  night,  absorption  is  no  longer  to  be  feared,  and  it  is 
necessaiy,  on  the  contrary,  to  prevent  a  too  rapid  emission 
of  the  body's  heat,  favored  by  a  diminution  of  temperature, 
somclinies  considerable.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  change 
the  rlothing  to  that  which   will  give  more  pi'otcction    thiin 


ni/f/ipiie  of  the  Soldier  in  {he  Tropics. 


61 


linen  and  cotton  and  which  will  absorb  humidity  well  and 
become  cool  slowly,  such  as  light-weight  woolens  or  fianucl. 

§  11.     The  Different  Articles  of  Clothing. 

From  what  we  have  just  seen,  clothing  of  white  linen 
and  white  cotton  will  give  the  best  results.  If  the  white 
color  is  too  easily  soiled  or  too  visible  to  warrant  its  being 
chosen,  the  choice  should  fall  neither  upon  black,  blue,  nor 
even  red,  but  should  be  limited  to  the  light  tints  bordering 
upon  yellow  or  light  brown.  A  brown  color  which  gets 
lighter  when  washed  would  seem  to  fulfill  the  conditions 
reasonably  well.  Besides,  as  a  simple  material  of  cotton  or 
linen  applied  directly  upon  the  tissues  would  cause  a  too 
rai)id  cooling  of  the  body,  there  should  be  at  least  two  layers 
superimposed;  the  first,  applied  directlj^  to  the  skin  (waist- 
coat, cotton  drawers,  shirt);  the  second,  forming  the  outside 
clothing  (paletot  and  trousers  of  linen  or  cotton).  These 
two  envelopes,  having  between  them  a  layer  of  air,  which  is 
a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  diminish  absorption  on  the  one 
hand,  and  a  too  rapid  elimination  of  heat  on  the  other. 

The  adoption  of  the  brown  linen  clothing  was  rational, 
it  is  excellent  for  the  hot  hours  of  the  day;  it  is  less  visible 
than  white  and  is  not  so  easily  soiled.  The  brown  linen 
clothing  now  issued  to  the  French  troops  is  lighter  than  that 
of  the  English,  but  the  color  will  not  resist  more  than  two  or 
three  washings.  The  superiority  of  the  English  color  is  due 
to  the  combined  use  of  areca  nuts  or  of  walnut  husks  and  a 
salt  ofjron,  which  enables  it  to  resist  the  decolorizing  action 
of  the  sun  and  also  of  water,  alcohol,  weak  acids,  alkalis,  and 
hyi)Ochlorites.  In  France  the  coloring  is  done  wdth  brown 
analine,  curcuma,  i-oucou,  logwood,  etc.,  whence  the  slight 
resistance  of  these  colors  and  their  incontestible  inferiority. 

There  is  a  defect  in  the  brown  jacket.  It  is  cut  much 
too  low,  leaving  the  neck  uncovered.     If  it  is  important  not 


62  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

to  compress  the  region  of  the  neck,  it  is  necessary  to  protect 
it  against  the  sun's  rays;  a  collar  capable  of  being  turned  up 
and  down  at  will  might  be  adopted. 

As  underclothing,  every  man  ought  to  have  two  shirts 
of  cotton  flannel,  less  irritating  than  the  flannel  waistcoats; 
two  pairs  of  drawers,  a  belt  of  wool,  similar  to  that  of  the 
Zouaves,  and  a  belt  of  flannel;  also,  two  handkerchiefs,  two 
napkins,  and  a  neckerchief. 

The  flannel  pea-jacket,  while  natty  for  review,  is  too 
heavy  and  warm  to  be  worn  during  the  day,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. Except  in  Tong-King  in  winter,  it  ought  to  be 
for  night  wear;  but  then  it  is  indispensable. 

The  trousers  are  subject  to  the  same  remarks  as  the 
clothing  for  the  trunk  so  far  as  the  nature,  color,  and  flexi- 
bility of  texture  are  concerned.  The  necessity  of  replacing 
the  linen,  in  the  evening,  by  a  material  aft'ording  more  pro- 
tection and  warmth,  is  still  more  imperious  with  regard  to 
the  trousers,  by  reason  of  the  great  sensibility  of  the  abdom- 
inal organs  and  of  the  extreme  frequence  of  the  affections 
which  concern  them.  It  is  necessary  then  to  provide  linen 
trousers  for  the  day  and  flannel  ones  for  the  night. 

The  outside  clothing,  com]»rising  the  great-coiit  and 
cloak,  should  be  provided.  Useless  in  the  hot  countries, 
except  in  Tong-King  in  winter,  they  should  be  deposited,  on 
the  debarkation  of  the  troops,  in  the  store-houses  at  head- 
(juarters,  to  be  obtained  again  at  the  time  of  returning  to 
France.  They  will  then  be  indispensable,  at  least  at  the  end 
of  the  voyage,  as  will  also  be  cloth  trousers. 

On  ex])editions,  the  imiiermcable  covciing  with  which 
the  Americans  have  long  jjrovidcd  their  soldiei-s  would  be  of 
more  service  than  a  cloak.  If  the  rain  stu'iniscs  the  colunin 
(III  the  march.  Ilic  men  unroll  the  c(»v('i'  over  the  head  and 
arms,  luiiiiug  tlic  i-iibbci'  side  out.     This  inipi-ovised  garment 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  63 

falling  behind  and  slightly  before,  without  ever  masking  the 
view,  would  leave  the  sides  free  for  evaporation  and  at  the 
same  time  prevent  the  men  from  getting  wet. 

For  officers,  the  clothing  should  comprise:  a  pea-jacket 
of  English  tlannel  (blue  or  red),  with  a  very  low  standing 
collar;  a  brown  linen  vest,  one  pair  of  trousers  of  blue  flannel 
with  stripes  in  piping,  according  to  arm;  and  one  pair  of 
trousers  of  brown  linen. 

The  best  head-covering  is  the  one  which  unites  to  sta- 
bility the  protection  of  the  back  of  the  neck  and  the  eyes. 
The  only  head-gear  admissible  in  the  daytime  is  the  colonial 
helmet,  which  permits  the  air  to  circulate  freely  around  the 
head  and  to  escape  through  the  openings;  the  visor  is  lined 
with  leather  or  cloth  of  a  green  color  to  soften  the  effect  of 
reverberation. 

Formerly  the  colonial  helmet  was  subject  to  some  criti- 
cisms of  detail;  it  was  too  heavy;  it  is  now  much  less  so,  and 
can  be  lightened  still  more.  It  was  too  narrow  at  the  sides, 
and  what  it  gained  in  elegance  it  lost  in  failing  to  protect 
sufficiently  the  sides  of  the  head;  it  has  been  enlarged  with- 
out damage  to  the  shooting  capacity  of  the  wearer. 

In  campaign,  with  a  view  to  obviating  the  too  great 
visibility  of  the  helmets,  it  is  well  to  put  on  a  cover  with 
flowing  ends,  which  increases  at  the  same  time  the  protec- 
tion of  the  temples  and  of  the  nape  of  the  neck;  the  best 
material  is  still  the  brown  linen.  While  furnishing  pro- 
tection from  the  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  it  protects  at 
the  same  time  from  reflection,  which  is  the  cause  of  numerous 
febrile  attacks,  for  fever  is  often  tal-en  through  the  eyes.  With 
the  object  of  giving  more  effective  protection  to  the  organs 
of  vision,  the  wearing  of  spectacles  of  smoked  glass  should 
be  authorized  on  the  march  and  on  guard.  The  English  in 
Egy})t  have  used  them.     With  the  same  end,  the  river  boats 


64  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

used  for  the  transport  of  the  personnel  should  have  double 
tents  with  curtains  of  blue  bolting-cloth. 

Every  man  found  without  his  helmet  between  the  rising 
and  the  setting  of  the  sun  ought  to  be  considered  guilty  of 
disobedience  of  orders  and  severely  punished.  It  is  a  neces- 
sity to  prevent  the  soldiers  from  exposing  themselves  to  the 
sun  as  well  as  to  the  nocturnal  cooling. 

The  cap  has  its  raison  d'etre  only  as  a  night  head-cover- 
ing. It  should  only  be  used  between  sunset  and  sunrise. 
In  anv  place,  the  cap,  which  is  a  protection  from  neither  heat 
nor  rain  and  compresses  the  head,  from  which  it  keeps  the 
air,  ought  not  to  be  worn  during  the  day.  During  the 
Madagascar  campaign  the  head-dress  called  bonnet  de  police 
was  preferred  to  the  cap — and  seemed  much  more  hygienic, 
because  it  protected  the  eyes  and  ears. 

The  function  of  the  shoe  is  to  sustain  the  foot,  to  preserve 
it  from  sores,  excoriations,  and  wounds  which  would  result 
from  marching  barefoot,  and  to  defend  it  from  the  incessant 
attack  of  innumerable  enemies:  serpents,  fleas,  chigres, 
scorpions,  betes  rouges,  lice  of  the  agouti,  bloodsuckers,  etc.  It 
is  evidently  improper  to  give  colonial  troops  light  shoes  of 
cloth,  as  they  would  have  too  little  resistance  for  inarching; 
nor  could  one  dream  of  making  them  imitate  the  natives,  avIio 
march  barefoot. 

The  shoe  must  be  both  solid  and  flexible,  and  must  be 
kept,  in  spite  of  the  heat  and  humidity  of  the  hot  country,  in 
such  a  condition  that  it  can  be  easily  put  on  and  removed. 

In  Madagascar,  the  ofticers  wei-e  ])rovided  with  boots  or 
with  brodekins  with  legs;  the  www  had  Xea])olitan  brodekins 
for  the  maich  and  a  ]»air  of  rsjtadritlr.^  for  repose.  That  was 
an  excellent  innovation;  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  the 
soles  of  the  espadrilles  made  of  thick  leather  and  very  i)roject- 
ing.     The  reform  might  have  been  made  complete^  by  giving 


Hygiene  of  the  Suldicr  in  the  'Tropics.  65 

light  gaiters  of  sheep-leatlier,  more  coiivenieut  to  keep  in 
good  order  thau  the  cloth  legs. 

To  keep  the  shoes  of  their  African  soldiers  in  a  suitable 
condition  of  flexibility,  the  Italians  recommend  a  mixture  of 
fish-oil,  turpentine,  and  grease. 

Before  the  march,  the  feet  should  be  washed  witb  water 
slightly  alcoholized;  they  should  then  be  greased  with  soap, 
or,  better  still,  with  grease.  In  the  absence  of  socks  of  cotton 
or  linen,  the  foot  should  be  enyeloped  with  a  strip  of  the 
latter  material.  At  the  end  of  the  march,  the  men  should 
wash  their  feet,  using  warm  water  when  possible;  the  heayy 
shoes  should  then  be  replaced  by  the  light  ones. 

A  white  umbrella  lined  with  a  material  of  green  or  blue 
is  indispensable  for  all  officers  or  agents  obliged  to  "super- 
intend work  in  the  hot  hours  of  the  day. 

With  regard  to  equipment,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that 
in  colonial  expeditions,  a  man  ought  to  carry  on  his  person 
only  his  arms,  ammunition,  some  food,  small  articles  for 
change,  and  a  waterproof.  The  soldier  on  the  march  in  the 
Tropics,  cannot  carry  a  weight  ayeraging  25  kilograms  with- 
out great  inconyenienee.  Eyen  admitting  that  all  the  equip- 
ment be  of  aluminum,  as  has  been  proposed,  the  weight 
would  still  be  too  heayy.  This  is  one  of  the  great  difficulties 
of  military  expeditions  in  the  hot  countries,  for  it  necessi- 
tates joining  to  the  combatants  a  yeritable  army  of  coolies 
to  carry  the  equipment. 

Each  soldier  ought  to  have  a  coolie.  The  campaign  in 
Madagascar  was  attended  with  sad  results  because  this  con- 
dition was  neglected.  The  soldier  on  the  march  was  obliged 
to  carry  his  knapsack,  as  well  as  other  articles  of  accoutre- 
ment and  camp  equipage.  To  impose  so  heayy  a  burden 
upon  a  European  in  the  hot  counti-ies  is  to  condemn  him  to 
ineyitable  sickness. 


6Q  Ilygieiw  of  iJie  Soldier  i)i  the  Tropics. 

§   III.     MalnlciKuice  of  Cloth iiuj. 

lu  the  chief  places  of  the  colonies  and  at  posts  easy 
of  access,  the  troops  receive  it^^iilarly.  as  in  France,  the 
clothinfi-  and  linen  allowed  by  the  r(^};nlations. 

It  is  not  so  in  the  case  of  isolated  posts.  Difhciilt  even 
in  ordinary  times,  the  supply  of  clothing  to  meet  all  de- 
mands then  becomes  a  problem. 

In  the  Soudan,  for  example,  after  seven  or  eij;ht  months 
of  work,  the  men  relieving  the  gan-isons  of  the  posts  arrived 
there  with  clothing  in  tatters  and  incapable  of  the  function 
assigned  it  by  hygienic  principles. 

The  means  of  remedying  this  situation,  so  defective  and 
prejudicial  to  health,  would  be  to  have  in  the  storehouses 
of  these  posts  a  sufiticient  quantity  of  clothing  to  i»roperly 
supply  the  men,  instead  of  compelling  them  to  remain  for 
mon-ths  with  nothing  to  cover  them  but  unifomis  in  rags  or 
other  unsuitable  clothing. 

The  washing  of  the  linen  is  important.  In  the  cities  it 
can  be  done  by  contract,  ajid  a  laundn-  would  be  an  ad- 
vantage at  every  post.  The  men  would  tluni  be  able  to  take 
care  of  their  linen  without  exposing  tliemselves,  either  on 
the  river  banks  or  under  unhygienic  sheltei-s,  to  the  emana- 
tions from  the  shore  or  to  the  action  of  solar  reverberation. 
They  would  also  be  freed  from  the  services  of  the  exotic 
washerwomen,  who  tear  tlu*  linen  and  oft(Mi  return  it  only 
half  clean. 

In  taking  care  of  the  clothing,  the  linen,  and  the  vari- 
ous articles  of  e(iuipment,  the  (piestion  of  cleanliness  is  con- 
nected with  another,  of  evtm  greater  imitortance,  which 
should  b<'  understood,  not  only  l)y  the  doctors,  but  also  by 
the  officers;  this  is  the  (|ues(ion  of  disinft'ction,  esj>ecially 
the  disinfection  of  articles  in  use. 

The  disinfection  of  clothiii';  and  bedding  is  a  measure 


\^^ ' 

Of  , 
Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  67 

which  should  Ix^  taken  in  all  colonial  garrisons  in  case  of 
death  and  also  in  conta5j;ious  diseases,  after  the  soldiers  are 
cured.  This  would  prevent  many  cases  of  disease  and  death 
from  the  reviviscence  of  the  morbid  germs  contained  in  the 
effects. 

In  large  centers,  provided  with  improved  appliances,  the 
clothing  and  bedding  are  placed  in  a  drying  stove,  receiving 
vapor,  under  pressure,  at  110  to  115  degrees. 

^^'here  these  large  apparatus  are  not  available,  a  solu- 
tion of  bichloride  of  mercury  of  1:1000  can  be  used,  in  which 
the  clothing  and  bedding  are  dipped;  they  are  then  placed  in 
boiling  water,  except  such  articles  as  would  be  injured. 

Clothing  is  often  the  means  of  propagating  epidemic 
diseases,  and  articles  of  clothing  which  have  been  worn 
should  never  be  issued  without  first  subjecting  tliem  to 
effective  disinfection. 


68  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Military  Life. 

No  one  is  iguorant  that  iu  the  Tropics  the  days  aud 
nights  are  of  practically  equal  length.  The  first  hours  of 
the  day  are  undoubtedly  the  most  healthful,  and  if  it  is  not 
a  good  thing,  especially  in  a  paludal  countn-.  to  get  up  be- 
fore sunrise,  it  is  not  bad  to  rise  with  the  sun.  From  six  to 
ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  is  the  first  working  period  of 
colonial  life;  the  second  extends  from  three  to  seven  in  the 
afternoon.  One  does  not  go  out  at  all  from  noon  to  four 
o'clock,  and  during  this  time  afi'airs  are  practically  sus- 
pended. There  is  a  reason  for  these  habits  in  the  colonies.  It 
is  dangerous  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun  at  the  zenith,  and  the 
European  soldier,  more  sensitive  than  the  native,  should  be 
warned  against  the  dangers  he  may  be  made  to  run  by  a 
hygienic  error.  The  military  authority,  always  vigilant,  will 
be  able  to  protect  him  by  establishing  a  list  of  service,  which 
alternates  work  and  rest  and  takes  into  account  the  exigen- 
cies of  climate. 

§   I.     Occupations  of  the  Soldier. 

In  the  colonics,  drills  are  necessary  to  occupy  the  men, 
to  prevent  them  from  losing  the  ]»rofit  of  tJie  military  in- 
struction received  in  France,  and  to  prepare  Ihcm  for  the 
eventualities  <»f  an  cx])edition;  they  are  also  beneficial  to 
health  and  are  a  pi'ccious  antidote  to  ennui. 

They  should  invariably  fulfill  a  double  condition: 

1.  Take  place  at  selected  hours. 

2.  l>e  of  short  duration. 

The  hour  naturally  indicated  is  (he  nioruiiig  hour  fol 
lowiug  lising.     It   is  usually  prcl'ci  ird,  as   Ix-ing  the  most 


llygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


69 


agreeable  and  the  one  in  which  the  man  is  in  best  condition 
and  best  capable  of  effort. 

With  reveille,  about  five  o'clock,  according  to  place 
and  season,  the  man  goes  to  drill,  either  every  day,  or  two  or 
three  times  a  week,  from  six  to  seven  o'clock.  The  drill 
lasts  from  one  to  two  hours.  The  men  should  never  be  sent 
to  drill,  however,  on  mornings  when  there  is  a  thick  fog. 
Experience  and  observation  show  that  such  fogs,  rising  with 
the  sun,  are  the  surest  vehicles  of  the  parasite  of  malaria. 
An  imprudence  would  also  be  committed  by  ever  sending  the 
men  to  drill  on  an  empty  stomach;  the  first  breakfast  should 
precede  the  drill,  as  an  empty  stomach  predisposes  the 
system  to  the  pernicious  influence  of  emanations  from  the 
ground. 

Under  these  conditions,  in  all  the  colonies,  the  soldier 
can  be  exercised  for  at  least  an  hour  in  the  manual  of  arms 
and  in  various  movements,  with  rests  of  five  minutes  at  the 
end  of  each  half-hour.  When  the  men  are  well  trained,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  reduce  the  length  of  the  drills,  which  are 
more  enervating  in  the  hot  countries  than  in  Europe,  when 
they  are  prolonged  or  too  often  repeated. 

Marches  should  be  of  short  duration.  As  it  is  necessary 
to  prepare  the  men,  even  by  a  little  training,  for  a  mobiliza- 
tion, which  might  take  place  at  any  time,  it  would  be  well  to 
nuike  them  execute,  once  a  week  in  the  good  season,  and 
from  six  to  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  a  march  of  fifteen 
kilometers,  during  which  care  should  be  taken  to  observe 
all  the  precautions  taken  in  time  of  war.  V\e  will  take 
occasion  to  refer  to  this  matter  again  in  the  chapter  on 
expeditions. 

It  is  evident  that  longer  marches  will  be  required  in 
actual  service  and  that  there  will  not  always  be  latitude  to 
halt  ten  minutes  every  hour;  but  under  pretext  of  training. 


70  Hygiene  of  (he  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

exhausting  effort  should  never  be  uselessly  exacted.  A 
company  accustomed  to  make  a  march  of  fifteen  kilometers 
frequently,  and  without  inconvenience,  can  make  double  the 
distance  on  occasion,  under  the  influence  of  a  moral  stimu- 
lant, especially  if  it  is  vigorously  commanded.  The  colonial, 
like  the  metropolitan  soldier,  will  do  his  duty  when  it  is  a 
question  of  getting  at  the  enemy,  of  marching  to  the  sound 
of  cannon,  of  flying  to  the  aid  of  a  place  or  of  his  brothers  in 
arms.  Although  in  France  it  is  permissible  for  a  command- 
ing officer  to  test  the  resisting  powers  of  his  men  by  one  or 
two  practice  marches,  the  fatigue  of  which  will  affect  their 
health  only  slightly,  it  is  not  the  same  in  the  hot  countries. 
Experience  of  what  takes  place  on  expeditions  proves  that 
an  exercise  of  this  nature  may  have  disastrous  consequences 
for  a  company. 

The  reviews  should  also  take  place  in  the  morning  at  the 
same  hour  prescribed  for  drill.  Not  being  fatigued  by  a  day 
of  heat  and  occupations,  the  men  will  present  a  more  cheer- 
ful and  alert  appearance. 

From  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  four  in  the  evening. 
all  outside  drills  should  be  prohibited. 

In  this  interval,  gymnastics  may  be  tolerated.  A  light 
costume  should  be  worn,  there  should  be  a  sufficiently  long 
rest  between  movements,  more  diveisity  and  less  monotony 
should  be  sought,  and,  above  all,  there  should  be  great  lati- 
tude concerning  the  number  and  difficulty  of  the  <'xercises  to 
be  practiced. 

It  is  the  same  with  fencing,  whicli  should  be  carried  on 
indoors. 

In  addition  to  jdiysical  military  exercises,  the  j)rofession 
of  arms  includes  theoretical  instruciion.  This  should  be 
given  iijioii  the  galleries  instead  of  in  the  i-oonis.  unless 
special  places  are  available,  such  as  dining  rooms,  school- 
rooms, etc. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 


71 


The  best  houis  will  be  from  eight  to  ten  in  the  morning 
and  from  two  to  four  in  the  afternoon. 

Theoretical  instruction  should  never  be  too  much  pro- 
longed under  penalty  of  tiring  the  soldier,  who  ends  by  suc- 
cumbing to  the  heat,  joined  to  the  immobility,  and  loses  all 
the  benefit  of  the  instruction.  An  hour's  duration  should 
suffice. 

The  hours  suitable  for  theoretical  military  instruction 
are  also  suitable  for  general  instruction. 

There  is  no  objection  to  devoting  an  hour  a  day,  upon  an 
average,  to  lessons  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  For 
men  more  advanced,  the  instruction  in  the  barracks  can  and 
should  be  extended  so  as  to  become  a  regular  course  for 
adults. 

Above  all,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  interest  the 
soldier;  that  is  to  say,  to  teach  him  about  all  that  surrounds 
him,  to  make  him  accpiainted  with  the  colony  in  which  he 
lives,  its  resources  fuid  its  products.  This  elementary  in- 
struction should  be  given  by  officers,  assisted  by  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  the  post  surgeon  could  add  with 
profit  some  lectures  upon  the  special  hygiene  of  the  climate. 
This  teaching  should  be  in  the  nature  of  object  lessons  and 
adapted  to  those  who  receive  it.  Through  them  it  will  be 
spread  and  will  give  an  exact  knowledge  of  our  possessions 
beyond  the  seas.  The  military  service  will  then  have  the 
double  advanitage  of  providing  our  colonial  empire  not  only 
with  defenders  in  the  present,  but  also  with  arms  for  the 
future. 

The  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  on  their  part 
should  often  devote  themselves  to  work,  either  to  cheat 
ennui,  or  to  instruct  themselves,  to  prepare  for  examinations 
or  for  the  military  schools.  Thej  should  know,  however, 
that  an  excess  of  mental  work  is  dangerous  and  that  the 


72  Hi/giene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

expenditure  of  stiengith  is  quite  as  considerable  as  that  pro- 
duced by  physical  work.  The  hours  to  choose  are  those  of 
the  morning,  or  at  least  of  the  forenoon,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  hottest  portions  of  the  day.  As  to  night  work,  it  ought 
to  be  absolutely  interdicted,  or  at  least  should  never  en- 
croach on  the  hours  which  should  be  devoted  to  sleep. 

§  II.  Fatiyve  Duty  and  Other  Work. 
It  will  no  longer  be  possible  fto  see  sailors  coaling  their 
ship  at  the  hour  when  the  convicts  are  faking  their  siesta,  as 
once  came  to  pass  in  Guiana.  There  are  fatigue  duties 
which  must  be  done  by  the  soldier;  but  he  ought  to  be  exempt 
from  certain  kinds  of  work:  in  any  case,  soldiers  ought  not 
to  be  transformed  into  coolies. 

FATIGUE. 

There  is  a  distinction  to  be  established  between  the 
fatigue  duties  on  the  interior  of  the  buildings  and  those 
outside. 

Interior  Fatigue. — The  soldier  ought  to  be  charg(^d  with 
the  care  of  his  quarters,  his  bed,  and  his  clothing;  in  all  that 
concerns  the  sweeping,  good  order,  cleanliness,  and  regular 
disinfection  of  the  buildings,  he  will  never  be  better  served 
than  by  himself. 

Doctor  Reynaud  gives  some  excellent  advice  on  this 
subject: 

"Immediately  after  tlie  men  rise,  ojien  the  windows  and 
the  blinds  of  the  gallery  on  (he  sunny  side,  leave  the  beds 
uncovered  for  a  few  moments,  pass  slightly  dam|iened  cloths 
ovei'  the  floor,  and  let  it  dry  immediately  for  sweeping;  re- 
(|nii-e  tlie  men  to  biiisli  and  jiolish  theii-  ell'ecis  on  the  gallery, 
then  sweej)  it  and  wash  it  witii  a  damp  nio]>,  oi-  even  Hood  it 
with  water  if  it  is  coveri'd  with  glazed  tiles  and  has  suflieient 
slope  to  insui-e  drainage:  once  a    week,   wi|ie  the  panes  of 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  73 

doors  and  windows.  The  same  day.  it  will  be  well  to  add  to 
the  water  used  to  wet  the  cleaning-cloths  a  certain  quantity 
of  carbolized  water,  of  say  50:1000,  or  a  solution  of  bichloride 
of  mercury.  The  dust  collected  in  the  interstices  and  corners 
should  also  be  sterilized.'' 

The  cleanliness  of  the  rooms  and  of  their  materials 
includes  also  the  care  of  the  bedding.  The  sheets  should 
be  washed  once  a  month  at  least,  and  the  coverings  aired 
and  beaten  on  the  galleries.  Ordinary  mattresses,  unless 
those  of  cocoa  hair  or  granulated  cork  are  alone  used,  should 
be  renovated  and  beaten  once  a  year  in  ordinary  times.  It 
is  also  necessary  to  provide  for  the  painting  of  the  rooms,  the 
coating  of  the  feet  of  the  beds  with  petroleum  or  carbolized 
tar,  the  beating  and  repairing  of  the  mosquito  bars,  th:^ 
insufflations  of  chamomile  powder,  and  the  distribution  of 
the  cuspidors,  disinfected  with  a  sulphate  of  copper  solution 
of  50 :1000  or  with  whitewash. 

There  are  also  soldiers,  designated  by  roster,  who  are 
charged  with  allowing  no  unclean  thing  to  remain  in  the 
quarters.  Through  their  care,  the  sweepings  and  the  debris 
of  the  tables  after  each  meal  are  collected  and  placed  in  the 
dirt-boxes;  the  utensils  are  cleaned,  being  washed  in  warm 
water  every  time  they  are  used. 

Exterior  Fatigue. — The  policing  of  the  annexes  or  of  the 
yards  of  the  barracks  should  never  be  done  by  whites,  as 
much  for  hygienic  reasons  as  to  inspire  respect  for  the  uni- 
form on  the  part  of  the  natives.  Under  the  supervision  of 
Europeans,  there  are  coolies  or  laborers  who  can  always  per- 
form, in  the  English  fashion,  the  service  of  cleaning  the 
yards,  prisons,  store-houses,  and,  with  more  reason,  the 
latrines  and  other  sinks.  After  the  moveable  tinettes  are 
taken  outside  and  away  from  the  barracks,  it  belongs  to  the 
coolies  alone  to  flood  them  and  wash  them  clean  with  disin- 
fecting solutions. 


74  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

If  certain  intei-ior  fatigue  duties  are  harassing  to  the 
French  soldier,  what  is  to  be  said  of  the  purely  exterior 
fatigue?  Here,  it  is  necessary  to  go  for  water,  every  day, 
several  kilometers  from  the  barracks;  there,  the  port  of 
debarkation,  which  supplies  the  post,  is  separated  from  it  by 
a  long  and  tiresome  route,  over  which  must  be  drawn  or  car- 
ried boxes,  packages,  and  casks,  which  sometimes  have  to  be 
hoisted  to  quite  a  height  at  the  military  buildings.  More- 
over, it  is  a  laborious  and  often  perilous  task,  which  requires 
a  large  portion  of  the  effective  force,  at  dates  often  close 
together,  either  to  go  to  a  distant  roadstead  to  disembark  the 
provisions  from  a  vessel,  or  to  go  there  to  bring  back  the 
material.  The  wood  details  to  the  neighboiing  forests,  the 
extraction  of  stone  from  a  quarry,  and  the^  procuring  of  sand 
for  the  gardens,  are  always  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  Euro- 
peans. How  many  attacks  of  fever  or  of  dysentery  have  had 
their  origin  in  fatigue  duty  of  this  description! 

Thus,  every  garrison  should  always  have  native  coolies, 
who,  under  the  supervision  of  Europeans,  are  charged  with 
all  troublesome  fatigue  both  on  the  interioi-  and  exterior  of 
the  military  buildings.  At  the  rate  of  one  coolie  to  t(Mi  men. 
all  would  go  smoothly.  The  savings  realized  u])on  days  in 
the  hospital  and  medicines  from  the  infirmary  would  provide 
foi-  their  maintenance  without  •increase  of  expense  for  the 
regiment.  ^loreover,  in  many  of  the  colonies,  the  local 
administrations  cmjiloy  a  certain  number  of  ])risoners  on 
road  and  gardening  works.  Why  shouhl  the  military  service 
not  jH-ofit  by  this  manual  labor  as  well  as  tlu^  municipality? 

In  the  penitentiary  (■oh)nies.  without  mixing  the  peii;il 
and  military  element,  certain  exterior  woik  could  be  done  by 
the  convicts.  If  foreign  manual  labor  should  fail,  it  would 
he  necessary  to  ])rovide  wagons,  caits,  horses,  oxen,  and 
mules  to  iicconijilisli  the  ciirlage  and  lians]ioit. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  75 

WORK. 

In  addition  to  fatigue  duties,  there  is  other  work  about 
the  barracks  and  military  buildings,  which  must  be  consid- 
ered. For  example,  gardening,  working  at  a  trade,  and 
works  of  excavation  and  defense. 

Gardening. — The  maintenance  of  a  garden  plavs  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  military  life  of  a  garrison,  for  on  it 
largely  depends  the  welfare  of  the  company  and  the  officers 
from  an  alimentary  standpoint.  The  officers  and  soldiers  are 
usually  eager  to  give  great  care  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
garden. 

The  gardener  sometimes  lives  in  the  garden,  in  a  sort  of 
hut  of  primitive  construction.  While  there  is  no  serious  in- 
convenience in  this  in  certain  colonies,  it  would  not  be  safe 
in  a  paludal  country.  The  guardian  of  the  garden  at  night 
should  be  a  native.  Digging,  removing  the  earth,  and  other 
laborious  work  should  likewise  be  performed  by  native 
coolies  serving  as  permanent  aids  to  the  European  gardener, 
whose  active  duty  should  be  limited  to  direction  and  super- 
vision. The  sowing,  gathering  of  fruits,  harvesting  of  vege- 
tables, and  sprinkling  might  sometimes  be  done,  without 
inconvenience,  by  Europeans  selected  from  men  undergoing 
punishment  or  from  volunteers.  They  should  work  only 
morning  and  evening,  never  during  the  hours  when  ontside 
work  is  forbidden. 

WorHng  at  a  Trade. — This  kind  of  work,  as  performed  by 
soldiers  in  the  colonies,  is  of  several  kinds. 

There  are  first  the  sedentary  trades,  those  of  the  tailor, 
shoemaker,  hair-dresser,  armorer,  painter,  which  are  not 
fatiguing  and  are  carried  on  in  a  desultory  way. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  call  upon  the  special  talents  of 
the  men,  who  are  generally  satisfied  to  occupy  their  leisure 
in  utilizing  their  knowledge. 


76  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Certain  trades  which  are  more  fatiguing,  as  tliose  of 
butcher,  baker,  aud  cook,  should  only  be  practiced  by  Eu- 
ropean professionals.  They  should  always  be  assisted  by  a 
sutficient  number  of  native  coolies  to  exempt  their  function 
from  all  laborious  and  humiliating  work. 

In  addition  to  these  interior  works,  there  are  others 
which  arise  unexpectedly  and  which  it  is  incumbent  on  the 
prolessionial  military  mechanics  to  perform:  soldiers  of  engi- 
neers, pontoniers,  and  artillery  mechanics.  Sometimes  there 
is  an  insufficient  number  of  these  professionals  and  they 
have  to  be  assisted  by  soldiers  taken  as  far  as  possible  from 
those  who  were  masons,  carpenters,  joiners,  or  slaters  be- 
fore their  entry  into  the  service,  for  it  is  a  question  in  this 
case  of  the  construction  or  repair  of  military  buildings. 

This  work  ought  to  be  done  during  the  hours  chosen  for 
outdoor  drills— that  is  to  say,  in  the  morning  or  evening.  In 
the  hottest  hours,  about  noon,  work  should  be  entirely  sus- 
pended, even  in  the  buildings  or  under  the  more  or  less  impro- 
vised sheds.  There,  the  time  prescribed  for  exterior  work 
might  occasionally  be  extended  an  hour  or  two,  morning  and 
evening.  In  unhealthy  countries,  all  work  of  this  kind  is 
most  troublesome  and  dangerous,  as  it  exposes  Europeans  to 
the  sun  and  to  febrific  emanations.' 

In  1840,  Th(^venot  had  already  pointed  out  the  excep- 
tional morbidity  and  moitalily  among  the  artillerymen  and 
mechanics,  especially  during  cxj^editions  and  during  the 
early  periods  of  occupation  of  a  ]><)st.  He  attributed  this, 
with  reason,  to  the  special  works  on  wliidi  these  soldiers 
were  then  employed.  Obser^  ations  of  the  same  nature  have 
since  been  nmde  in  tlie  Soudan,  Dahomey,  and  again,  but 
recently,  in  Madagascar.  A  t  Koutonou,  in  1800,  the  mechan- 
ics '^f  nrlillcry  cuiiih^vrd  in  erecting  barracks  showed  a 
iiioiliidity  ol'  (;i  per  cent,  after  a  stay  of  tlii-cc  niontlis. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  77 

Tlu'se  workmen  should  be  subjected  to  all  the  more  care- 
ful supervision  because  many  of  them  who  are  sick  avoid 
presenting  themselves  to  the  medical  officer  in  order  not  to 
be  deprived  of  the  high  pay  accorded  them.  This  is  an 
important  consideration.  If  it  were  disregarded,  and  the 
small  number  of  exemptions  furnished  by  the  workmen 
taken  as  a.  basis,  the  conclusion  might  be  reached  that  active 
work  in  insalubrious  regions  has  a  good  influence  and  is  even 
necessary  for  the  health.  It  is  also  true  that  high  pay  often 
leads  to  excesses  of  all  kinds  on  the  part  of  those  who  draw 
it.  It  is  the  duty  of  commanding  offi<'ers  to  prevent  this  by 
allowing  the  soldiers  only  a  part  of  the  sums  earned.  The 
balance  of  the  money  should  be  deposited  in  the  corps-chest 
and  paid  the  men  at  the  end  of  their  colonial  service,  unless 
those  interested  prefer  to  send  the  amount  of  their  savings 
to  France. 

Worlcs  of  Excavation  and  Defense  require  a  greater  ex- 
penditure of  energy,  are  always  executed  on  the  exterior,  and 
in  paludal  countries  have  the  additional  disadvantage  of  ex- 
posing the  soldier  directly  to  the  emanations  from  the  soil. 
In  this  respect  there  is  a  considerable  difference  between  low 
and  marshy  countries  like  those  of  Indo-China,  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa,  and  the  littoral  of  Madagascar,  and  dry  or 
elevated  countries  like  the  high  plateaux  of  the  Antilles,  or 
the  coralline  and  i)ermeable  soils  of  the  oceanic  islands. 

Dutrouleau  observed  long  ago,  and  after  General  Donze- 
lot,that  work  in  healthy  places,  even  during  the  warm  hours, 
was  beneficial  to  health.  The  fortifications  constructed  in 
the  volcanic  fornuitions  of  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique,  in 
1840  and  the  following  years,  had  no  other  effect  than  to 
improve  the  health  of  the  troops.  It  was  the  same,  later, 
when  Camp  Jacob  was  established.  The  fact  is  easily 
proved.      The  fusiliers  de  discipline  in  service  in  the  Saints 


78  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

and  in  M;utini<|ne,  altlH)n<iii  engaged  in  laborious  works, 
have  had  only  four  deaths  in  five  years  out  of  an  average 
effective  strength  of  108  per  year.  This  percentage  is  nine 
times  less  than  in  the  infanterie  de  marine  stationed  in  all  our 
colonial  possessions. 

During  the  first  years  of  our  occupation  of  New  Cale- 
donia, our  soldiers  were  also  obliged  to  construct  numerous 
earth-works  and  roads — at  Noumea  and  in  that  vicinity. 
Nevertheless  the  sanitary  condition  remained  excellent. 

Passing  from  the  Antilles  and  Oceanica  to  our  colonies 
in  Indo-China,  Guiana,  Senegal,  the  Soudan,  Dahomey,  and 
Madagascar,  to  those,  in  a  word,  w^hich  have  long  had  a  bad 
reputation,  too  often  verified,  as  fever  countries,  we  can  prove 
the  grievous  influence  exercised  u]ton  the  health  of  troops  by 
the  handling  of  alluvial  soil. 

In  (Juiana,  in  17(»:'..  12.(K)(I  soldiers  and  colonists  sent 
from  France  attempted  the  cultivation  of  the  land.  They 
were  soon  reduced  from  12,000  to  2,000. 

Druing  the  first  years  of  the  conquest  of  Cochin-China, 
at  a  time  when  no  military  expeditions  were  in  progress,  the 
nulitary  and  other  works  undertaken  l>y  the  troops  entailed 
a  mortality  of  115  per  1000,  in  a  corps  of  ;^()00  men.  More 
recently,  in  Tong-King,  hundreds  of  deaths  have  occurred 
among  the  men  employed  on  the  defensive  works  at  Phu-ly, 
riiulang-Tuong,  Lang-Kej),  ("hfi,  etc. 

In  1840,  during  the  little  exj)edition  wliicli  h'd  to  the 
occuj)ation  of  Nossi-l>e,  there  were  a  few  eaith  works  to 
establish.  There  was  such  a  reci  luh'sceuce  of  fevers  that  ><0 
men  were  lost  in  a  very  short  time.  The  deplorable  results  of 
the  attempts  made  by  th.e  whites  to  handle  the  virgin  soil  of 
Madagascar  are  known  only  two  well. 

"Who  moves  the  soil  in  a  |>aludal  country,"  said  Lind, 
two  hundred  vears  ago,  "digs  there  his  grave."     It  has  been 


Hygiene  of  (he  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  79 

proved  by  experience  that  Europeans  can  perform  laborious 
tasks  under  any  meteorological  conditions  provided  they  are 
protected  from  the  influence  of  the  soil.  This  was  the  case 
with  the  sailors  of  the  Madagascar  flotilla,  who,  in  1885,  and 
again  in  1895,  led  the  roughest  sort  of  life  on  the  river  gun- 
boats and  at  Tamatave  and  Majunga.  The  mortality  was 
much  less  among  these  sailors  than  among  the  soldiers  living 
on  the  land. 

In  paludal  countries  the  European  cannot  work  the  soil; 
native  coolies  should  be  exclusively  used  in  the  construction 
of  earth-works,  and  only  the  want  of  manual  labor  justifies 
the  use,  with  discretion,  of  the  native  troops.  It  should 
never  be  forgotten  that  no  race  is  absolutely  immune  to 
paludism. 

The  opening  of  the  famous  canal  joining  Chandoc  to  the 
Gulf  of  Siam  would  formerly  have  cost  the  lives  of  80,000 
Annamites. 

The  Panama  Railroad  has  seen  as  many  Chinese  die  as 
there  are  ties  in  its  road-bed.  Bear  in  mind  also  the  mortal- 
ity among-  the  Marocains  in  the  Haut-Fleuve  at  the  time  of 
our  first  cami)aigns  in  the  Soudan. 

The  conclusion  is  that  in  hot  countries,  especially  pal- 
udal countries,  reservation  must  be  used  in  the  measure  of 
fatigue  to  impose  upon  white  troops,  and  even  upon  native 
troops,  if  their  health  is  to  be  preserved.  But  it  does  not  fol- 
low that  they  should  be  left  unoccupied  and  inactive.  The 
ability  of  the  commander  will  be  shown  by  keeping  his 
troops  constantly  in  good  condition  without  exhausting  their 
strength.  Even  in  times  of  epidemic  it  would  be  a  great  mis- 
take to  allow  the  men  to  abandon  themselves  completely  to 
idleness  and  ennui,  anxious  for  the  morrow  and  consumed  by 
inquietude.  From  ennui  and  inactivity  to  the  complete  loss 
of  the  appetite  is  only  a  step,  and  when  the  ajipetite  is  gone, 
disease  is  near  at  hand. 


80  Hygiene  of  (he  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

As  for  eaith-woiks,  it  must  be  known  when  to  put  a  stop 
to  them,  in  war  as  well  as  in  peace,  since  it  is  a  fact  that  in 
paludal  countries  their  inlluence  has  been  more  fatal  to  the 
troops  than  the  most  murderous  epidemics. 

It  is  a  long  time  since  the  habit  was  renounced  of  allow- 
ing colonial  soldiers  to  work  for  the  inhabitants.  From  the 
standpoints  of  health,  morality,  and  discipline,  this  measure 
can  only  be  applauded.  The  working  of  the  ground  was 
above  all  the  most  pernicious  and  naturally  the  most  in  de- 
mand. It  would  be  veritable  folly  to  go  back  to  such  a 
system,  and  it  would  be  less  excusable  to  do  so  in  our  time,  as 
it  is  impossible  to  plead  ignorance  of  the  dangers  incurred. 

§  III.     Bathing. 

In  the  Tropics,  especially  after  work,  as  much  to  rid  the 
skin  of  the  products  accumulated  by  perspiration  as  to 
carry  off  a  certain  amount  of  heat,  the  bath  is  at  once  a 
necessity  and  a  benefit.  It  enables  a  man  to  struggle  with 
advantage  against  the  numerous  eruptions  which  overrun 
the  skin. 

Under  the  forms  of  douches,  baths,  immersions,  and 
sprinklings,  the  men  ought  to  find  in  every  post  the  means  of 
giving  themselves  total  ablutions  daily. 

In  France,  recourse  is  had  to  the  Haro  process,  which 
can  be  easily  and  cheaply  placed  in  the  smallest  barracks. 
It  furnishes  douches  for  the  men  at  very  small  expense.  By 
unmans  of  a  suction  and  force-pump  furnished  with  a  nozzle 
or  sprinkling-hf^ad,  the  soldiers  are  sprinkled  with  a  mixture 
of  hot  and  cold  water.  The  fire-pumji.  in  the  colonial  posts, 
is  entirely  adapted  for  this  use  and  also  for  filling  the  reser- 
voirs and  apparatus  of  the  douche. 

It  is  in  the  morning,  between  nine  and  ten  o'clock,  before 
the  second  breakfast  and  after  the  hours  of  exteiior  service, 
tlint   the  men,  in  gionj^s,  should  present  themselves  at  the 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  81 

douche  and  at  the  pool,  ^\'ith  the  approval  of  the  medical 
authority  and  the  commandant,  especially  at  certain  epochs, 
a  second  hydropathic  seance  mio-ht  be  held  at  tiye  o'clock  in 
the  eyening.  These  seances  should  be  short,  only  a  few  nun- 
utes;  they  should  not  be  obligatory  unless  demanded  for 
cleanliness.  It  ^yould  even  be  proper  to  forbid  the  douches 
and  cold  sprinkling  to  soldiers  recently  attacked  by  diarrhoea 
or  suffering  from  intermittent  feyer.  For  a  subject  in  these 
conditions,  or  eyen  one  ill-disposed  from  paludal  causes,  a 
douche  or  a  cold  bath  would  suffice  to  produce  a  return  of 
the  attack. 

Hot  or  cold  baths  in  bath  tubs  are  not  in  fashion  in  the 
barracks,  outside  the  infirmaries;  the  same  may  be  said  of 
sea  and  riyer  baths,  in  spite  of  their  advantages  as  exercise 
and  as  a  stimulant  to  the  system.  In  the  colonies  they  are 
either  not  very  practicable  or  dangerous :  not  A'ery  practica- 
ble when  the  price  is  a  long  walk;  dangerous  on  account  of 
the  sun,  the  crocodiles,  the  sharks,  and  a  thousand  noxious 
fish,  none  the  less  to  be  avoided  because  less  formidable. 

It  is  already  known  how  freiiuent  are  the  deaths  by 
drowning  among  our  colonial  soldiers.  There  is  a  veritable 
danger  in  permitting  men  to  bathe  alone.  More  than  any- 
where else,  they  should  be  positively  forbidden  to  do  so  in 
the  hot  countries. 

§  IV.     Amusements  and  Best. 

To  preserve  among  our  soldiers  of  the  colonial  army  the 
health  of  the  mind,  which  is  as  indispensable  as  the  health 
of  the  body,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  them  in  the  barracks 
with  all  the  distractions  compatible  with  the  profession  of 
arms  and  the  exigencies  of  discipline. 

One  of  the  first  things  deserving  favorable  consideration 
is  the  establishment  in  all  the  posts  of  little  libraries.  With 
good  will,  the  money  could  be  found,  even  by  appeal  to  the 


82  Ili/fjiene  of  the  SohJier  in  the  Tropics. 

liberality  of  the  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  colo- 
nists, and,  above  all,  to  the  aid  societies. 

To  the  libraries  should  be  added  a  few  games  of  dominos, 
checkers,  and  loto.  The  ideal  would  be  the  union  of  these 
various  attractions  in  a  special  room,  which  would  become  a 
sort  of  club  for  the  men,  advantageously  replacing  the  exist- 
ing canteens.  There,  each  one  would  be  at  perfect  liberty  to 
rest,  read,  amuse  himself  with  the  various  games,  and  attend 
to  his  correspondence.  Keading-rnoms  have  been  installed  in 
certain  barrat-ks  in  France,  but  it  is  in  the  English  and  Dutch 
colonies  that  models  of  this  kind  are  found.  In  Java,  for 
example,  the  canteen  is  a  very  airy  place,  situated  in  a  large 
garden  provided  with  the  various  games  which  the  soldiers 
love — bowling,  lawn-tennis,  etc.  There  is  also  a  billiard- 
table;  theatricals,  always  so  pleasing  to  the  soldier,  concerts, 
and  even  balls,  are  encouraged  there.  It  is  the  only  ])lace 
v.here  the  Dutch  soldier  can  get  spirituous  drinks,  and  he  is 
allowed  to  get  only  a  very  small  (juantity;  in  return,  he 
obtains  tea,  cotfe(\  and  lemonade  nd  lihituin  and  at  a  very 
low  price. 

It  may  seem  difficult  lor  us  to  create  institutions  of  this 
nature  on  account  of  our  customs  and  of  the  i>rotectiou 
att'oi-ded  local  commerce  in  our  colonies;  all  military  com- 
manders have  at  least  the  right  to  try  it  in  the  inclosnre  of 
the  barracks.  The  end  to  be  attained  is  to  draw  tlic  soldiers 
from  the  allurements  of  the  saloon  and  to  seek  to  amuse  them 
while  preserving  their  health. 

Rest  in  the  colonies  should  be  taken  in  two  installments; 
one  at  night,  the  othei-  in  the  daytime. 

The  latter,  the  siesta,  has  its  partisans  and  its  detractors. 
Still,  as  far  as  concerns  the  soldier,  rising  at  tive  o'clock, 
doing  guard  duty  at  night  and  attending  drills  duiing  the 
moiiiiiig.  a  little  icst  or  even  sleeji  is  a  nccci-sity  about  mid- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  83 

day.  It  is  not  only  absolutely  harmless,  but,  practiced  with 
discretion,  the  siesta  can  have  only  a  favorable  influence  ujion 
the  health. 

As  for  rest  at  night,  its  duration  can  never  be  abridged 
without  inconvenience.  For  this  reason,  nocturnal  exercises 
should  be  extremely  limited.  Night  marches,  unless  de- 
manded by  a  superior  interest,  should  be  proscribed. 


84  Hygiene  of  Ore  Sohlier  in  the  Tropics. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

Medical  Service. 

To  anticipate  (Jisease.s  by  appropriate  measures  is  not 
suflHcient;  tlie  development  must  be  opposed  and  tlie  gravity 
appeased  by  giving-  the  most  careful  attention  to  the  sick. 
This  is  accomplished  by  a  judicious  organization  of  the 
medical  service. 

§  I.     Medical  Personnel. 

The  personnel  distributed  in  each  colony  ought  to  be  suffi- 
cient to  assure  the  working  of  the  entire  military  medical 
service.  The  jtroportions  should  be  based  not  only  upon  the 
effective  strength,  but  also  upon  the  number  of  posts,  the 
grouping  or  dissemination  of  the  troops,  and  the  difficulty  of 
communications  between  the  different  posts. 

Medical  Officers. — ^The  number  of  officers  of  the  Medical 
Department  should  be  great  enough  to  permit  the  assign- 
ment of  one  wherever  there  is  an  isolated  grouji  of  at  least 
<)()  men. 

In  France,  an  infantry  regiment  of  three  battalions, 
united  or  scattered  in  two  or  thre§  garrisons,  includes: 
I  surgeon  of  the  1st  class  (niedecin  principal  de  la  Marine); 

1  surgeon  of  the  2d  class  (medecin  de  Ire  classe  de  la  Marine)  ; 

2  assistant   surgeons    ( infdecin    de  2e   classe   de   la    Marine) ; 
making  4.     In  tinu'  of  war  this  number  is  raised  to  <!. 

In  the  colonies  there  are  often  less  than  four  surgeons 
to  the  regiment,  whatever  its  strength.  Moreover,  the  native 
regiments  never  have  a  chief  surgeon — that  is  to  say,  an 
officer  of  snj»erior  rank.  The  method  of  assigning  medical  of- 
ficers is  (piite  ditTerent  from  that  in  France;  nevertheless,  the 
service  in  tiie  cohmies  is  very  important  and  the  decisions  to 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  85 

be  made  demaud  more  promptness,  more  experience,  matur- 
ity, and.  authority  on  the  part  of  officers  of  the  Medical 
Department. 

It  is  especially  to  be  regretted  that  at  the  posts  of  the 
interior  an  isolated  European  or  native  company  is  often 
found  without  any  surgeon  at  all.  In  these  cases,  medical 
attendance  is  given  by  the  colonial  surgeon  of  the  district  or 
of  a  neighboring  district,  or  even  by  an  assistant  surgeon, 
attached  to  a  post  sometimes  very  remote,  who  comes  once 
or  twice  a  month  or  weekly.  In  time  of  peace  this  system 
has  the  disadvantage  of  failing  to  give  the  men  prompt  and 
sufficient  attention.  In  case  the  surgeon  belongs  to  the  colo- 
nial service  and  is  therefore  ignorant  of  the  regimental  ser- 
vice, it  has  the  inconvenience  of  placing  the  medical  action 
outside  the  control  of  the  commanding  officer.  In  time  of 
expedition  (the  permanent  condition  in  certain  regions), 
when  the  garrison  of  one  of  these  posts  is  mobilized,  it  is  in 
danger,  if  operating  alone,  of  having  no  surgeon  to  follow 
it  and  of  failing  to  meet  one  during  part  of  the  operations. 

It  has  often  been  proved  that  the  medical  personnel  is' 
insufficient  for  its  task,  the  result  being  a  very  high  death- 
rate,  due  to  the  absence  of  sanitary  measures  and  medical 
assistance. 

Thus,  in  Tong-King,  in  1888,  there  were  678  deaths;  in 
1889,  382  out  of  1069;  and  in  1890,  286  out  of  1125.  These 
were  the  results  of  the  above  conditions. 

In  order  to  furnish  all  soldiers  with  the  medical  assist- 
ance to  which  they  are  entitled,  it  is  necessary  to  increase 
the  number  of  surgeons  with  troops. 

With  the  object  of  fixing  the  ideas  upon  this  point  and 
of  demonstrating  the  urgent  necessity  of  reform,  we  give  a 
table  showing  the  medical  officers  attached  to  the  infantry 
and  artillery  of  Marine  on  January  1, 1898. 


Lists  of  Surgeons  for  Duty  with  Troops. 
France. 


Artillery. 

1st  Regiment 

2d  Regiment 

Companies  of  Mechanics 
Pyrotechnic  School.    ... 

Infantry. 

1st  Regiment 

2d  Regiment       

3d  Regiment 

4th  Regiment 

5th  Regiment 

6th  Regiment    

7th  Regiment    

8th  Regiment 

Paris  Battalion 

Detachments  in  Crete. .  .  . 

Total 


Chief 
Surgeons. 


11 


Surgeons 

of  the 
1st  Clas.s 


18 


Surgeons 

of  the 
2d  Class 


SO 


Total. 


59 


Colonies. 


Chief 
Surgeons. 

Surgeons 

of  the 
l.st  Class. 

Surgeons 

of  the 
2d  Class. 

Total. 

European  Troops. 

9th  Regiment .... 

10th  Regiment   

11th  Regiment 

1 

1 

1 

3 

2 
2 

1 
3 
4 
1 
2 

1 
16 

1 

15 

3 

2 

? 

3 
3 
2 

12th  Regiment 

1 

3 

13th  Regiment 

Battalion  of  Martinique 

8 
1 

Battalion  of  Guiana 

1 
1 

3 

Battalion  of  Senegal 

Battalion  of  Reunion  . 

3 

1 
1 

Total 

Native  Troops. 

Annamite  Tirailleurs 

Tong-King  Tirailleurs 

Soudan  Tirailleurs 

Senegal  Tir  lilleurs 

6 

3 
5 

1 
1 
1 

25 

4 

20 

4 

3 

H<  ussa  Tirailleurs   

•) 

Total 

3 

11 

22 

33 

Grand  Total             .    . 

17 

38 

58 

Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  b7 

We  find  a  total  of  117  surgeons,  50  in  France  and  58  in 
the  colonies. 

In  France,  the  59  surgeons  attached  to  the  troops  are 
sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  service,  inasmuch  as  the  vacan- 
cies caused  by  departures  to  the  colonies  are  immediately 
filled  by  surgeons  from  the  general  list  of  the  Marine;  these 
last,  selected  by  roster,  serve  at  least  two  years  in  the 
regiments. 

In  the  colonies,  58  surgeons,  from  which  number  must 
be  deducted  those  who  are  sick,  on  leave,  or  changing  sta- 
tion, have  to  suffice  for  the  regimental  service  of  14,000  Euro 
j)ea.ns  and  25,000  natives,  or  a  total  of  ?>9,000  men,  scattered 
by  battalions  and  companies,  always  in  movement,  often  in 
war.  The  Europeans  have  barely  25  surgeons — that  is  to  say, 
less  than  2  per  1000  men;  the  natives,  with  only  83  for  25,000 
men,  are  still  less  favored. 

It  is  not  possible  to  demand  too  strongly: 

1.  An  increase  of  the  number  of  medical  officers. 

2.  An  augmentation  in  the  number  of  superior  officers 
to  direct  the  service. 

There  might  be  adopted  for  each  3  battalions  of  4  com- 
panies the  following:  1  chief  surgeon,  2  surgeons  of  the 
1st  class,  and  3  surgeons  of  the  2d  class;  total,  0. 

The  distribution  could  be  made  thus : 

1.  In  each  regiment  of  3  battalions,  1  principal  sur- 
geon as  chief,  with  the  senior  surgeon  of  the  1st  class  ready  to 
replace  him. 

2.  In  each  regiment  of  2  battalions,  or  in  the  case  of 
2  battalions  combined,  a  surgeon  of  the  1st  class. 

3.  In  each  regiment  of  3  battalions,  3  surgeons  of  the 
2d  class;  and  for  each  regiment  of  2  battalibns^  2  surgeons 
of  the  2d  class. 

The  number  of  surgeons  of  the  2d  class  could  be  varied 


88  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

according  to  coluiij;  it  slioiild  be  based  iipuu  the  number  of 
postt*  to  be  supplied  and  the  condition  of  the  country  occu- 
pied. It  could  be  reduced  in  Reunion,  the  Antilles,  and 
Guiana;  in  Indo-China,  on  the  Coast  of  Africa,  and  in  New 
Caledonia,  it  should  be  the  regulation  number;  in  Madagas- 
car and  the  ?!oudan,  it  should  always  be  increased. 

The  number  of  surgeons  necessary  for  regimental  ser- 
vice in  the  colonies,  in  our  o])inion,  is  as  follows: 

For  Service  wiTh  Troops  in  the  Colonies. 

Chief  Surgeons 4  ^        fqj- 

Surgeons  of  the  1st  Class '...'.['.      13  f  European 

Surgeons  of  the  2d  Class   19  \    Troops. 

Total "i^ 

Chief  Surgeons       ...       g  1        poj- 

Surgeons  of  the  1st  Class. 14  (     Native 

Surgeons  of  the  2'J  Class 22  )    Troops. 

Total 42 

This  would  be  an  increase  of  20,  certainly  not  excessive. 
It  w<uild  give  2  surgeons  i)er  1000  men,  and  we  know  that  in 
France,  in  time  of  war,  there  are  officers  of  the  Medical 
Department  to  a  mobilized  regiment  forming  a  group  of 
8000  men. 

Moreover,  the  regimental  surgeons  would  everywhere 
insure  the  medical  care  of  their  soldieis  in  the  wards  of  the 
colonial  hospitals  tiansformed  into  mixed  hospitals,  as  in 
France. 

The  advantages  whicli  would  result  for  the  men,  for  the 
administration,  and  also  for  the  Treasury,  would  be  very  ap- 
preciable. Actually  the  daily  hospital  charges  in  the  French 
colonies  have  been  18  fr.  r»0  for  officeis  and  0  fr.  14  for  the 
men,  against  an  average  of  4  fr.  10  in  the  foreign  ]K>rts. 

In  connertion  wilh  colonial  expeditions,  Ave  shall  have 
occasion  to  s]»eak  of  the  number  of  surgeons  to  be  i)rovided 
for  the  performance  of  duties  outside  of  those  direct Iv  con- 


Hygiene  of  ilie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  89 

nected  with  the  troops — viz.,  in  the  field  hospitals,  on  trans- 
ports and  hospital-ships,  at  sanitaria,  and,  in  a  word,  all 
duties  connected  with  sanitary  measures. 

Nurses. — The  number  of  nurses  with  the  colonial  troops 
should  also  be  increased.  In  France  and  in  the  colonies, 
each  European  regiment  has  a  regimental  nurse  from  each 
battalion,  chosen  from  the  most  capable  and  best  instructed 
of  the  auxiliary  nurses.  Unfortunately,  the  native  regi- 
ments are  too  often  unprovided  with  them.  The  auxiliaries 
among  these  troops  are  rather  coolies  than  nurses.  How- 
ever, Europeans  or  natives,  regimental  nurses  or  auxiliary 
nurses,  they  are  not  professionals,  but  are  only  improvised. 
Now  a  nurse  can  no  more  be  improvised  than  a  surgeon. 

In  the  short  term  of  service  there  is  not  time  to  teach 
them  enough  to  enable  them  to  perform  their  delicate  func- 
tions. Among  the  auxiliaries  are  found  some  who  are  very 
useful  as  bearers  or  hospital  attendants,  but  there  are 
scarcely  ever  professional  nurses.  Now,  in  the  colonies,  espe- 
cially, the  surgeons,  often  isolated,  need  excellent  assistants, 
capable  of  training  and  directing  a  certain  number  of 
natives.  The  Annamites  and  the  natives  of  Tong-King 
make  excellent  hospital  nurses  when  they  have  had  the 
necessary  practice.  There  should  be,  then,  in  the  colonial 
army,  a  corps  of  nurses  like  the  corps  of  surgeons — that  is  to 
say,  a  corps  of  professionals.  This  body  should  include  ad- 
jutants, sergeant-majors,  sergeants,  corporals,  and  nurses  of 
1st  and  2d  classes. 

Nurses  of  the  grades  of  adjutant  and  sergeant-major 
could  be  detached  to  the  small  posts  without  a  surgeon,  and 
could  render  the  greatest  service  in  such  a  case. 

There  should  be  1  sergeant  per  regiment,  1  corporal 
per  battalion,  and  1  nurse  per  company. 

In  a  column,  these  non-commissioned  oflScers,  with  the 


90  Ili/yieiic  of  ilie  Soldier  hi  fite  Tropics. 

auxiliaries  and  the  bearers,  would  form,  under  direction  of 
the  surgeon,  a  sanitary  pcrsoiuid  ecjual  to  all  exigencies. 
The  organization  of  the  nurses  of  the  fleet  serves  as  an 
example:  the  non-commissioned  oflicers,  who  are  profes- 
sional nurses,  are  assigned  alone  to  small  vessels,  such  as  the 
torpedo  despatch-boats,  and  the  service  is  efficient.  As  for 
ships  provided  with  a  medical  officer,  they  always  have  a 
suitable  number  of  instructed  and  zealous  nurses,  precious 
auxiliaries  of  the  medical  service  either  afloat  or  ashore,  in 
case  of  debarkation. 

§  II.     Hospitals  and  rnfirinaries. 

In  the  great  centers,  the  colonial  hospitals  of  to-day  are 
fairly  comfortable.  Like  the  barracks  and  -other  military 
constructions,  they  might  be  classified:  good  or  indifferent, 
as  (juarters,  in  our  possessions  the  least  badly  provided;  in- 
sufficient in  certain  respects;  sometimes  defective. 

All  the  criticisms  made  in  regard  to  the  colonial  bar- 
racks might  be  repeated  as  to  the  old  hospitals;  it  is  proper, 
however,  to  acknowledge  that  real  progress  has  been  made 
in  construction.  As  for  the  installation  and  interior 
management  of  the  wards,  the  regulations  governing  the 
cleanliness  and  salubrity  of  the  hospital  establishments  in 
France  are  applicable  to  the  colonies. 

It  must  be  added,  however,  that  in  the  colonies,  more 
than  anywhere  else,  care  should  be  taken  to  provide: 

1.  A  system  foi-  the  prevention  of  illicit  communica- 
tions between  i)atients  and  the  exterior. 

2.  Si)ecial  wards  for  dysenteries. 

:>.     Pavilions  foi-  contagious  diseases. 
4.     Rooms  for  the  insane. 

T).  SjKMial  vehicles  and  litters  for  transporting  the 
l»at  ients. 


Hygiene  of  the  SnhJier  in  fhe  Tropics.  91 

We  do  not  dwell  upon  disinfection  appliances.  While 
they  pertain  to  the  city,  they  naturally  find  their  place  in  the 
hospital,  where  they  could  be  kept,  and  i)laced  at  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  representative  of  the  council  of  hygiene  in  case  of 
need.  Several  of  our  large  hospitals  are  provided  with  them. 
If  the  colonial  cities  are  generally  sufficiently  favored 
with  respect  to  hospitals,  it  is  not  the  same  with  the  smaller 
places  and  the  military  posts.  Hospitals  are  still  found  of 
ancient  creation  which  have  not  even  a  room  set  apart  for 
the  care  of  the  sick ;  others  are  better  off  in  this  respect,  but 
in  Xew  Caledonia,  for  example,  the  infirmary  contains  only 
a  few  troop  beds,  and  is  without  chair,  table,  cupboard — any- 
thing, in  a  word,  which  can  recall  its  special  destination. 
Without  exacting  luxurious  and  complicated  furnishings, 
there  should  alw'ays  be  a  regimental  infrmari/,  suitable  to  the 
size  of  the  garrison,  whenever  the  large  colonial  hospitals 
are  not  in  proximity  to  the  barracks.  This  should  also  be 
the  case  in  posts  which  have  no  small  hospital  annexed  to 
the  ipiarters,  such  as  is  often  seen  in  Tong-King  and  Cochin- 
China. 

A  regimental  infirmary,  says  Doctor  Gayet.  ought  to  be 
separated  from  the  barracks  by  a  yard,  and  should  be  far 
from  noise  and  odors.  It  should  always  be  of  more  than  one 
story. 

The  ground  ttoor  should  comprise: 

1.  The  quarters  of  the  non-commissioned  officer  in 
charge  of  the  infirmary. 

2.  A  waiting  room  or  large  hall  with  benches  for  the 
fatigued  and  lame  men. 

3.  An  examination-room,  with  cupboards  containing 
the  instruments,  medicines,  and  records. 

4.  The  office  of  the  surgeon. 

5.  A  store-room  for  the  effects  of  the  sick,  the  utensils, 
■and  the  supplies  of  the  infirmarv. 


92  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

6.     A  bath-ioom  with  tubs  aud  douches. 
Ou  the  second   floor,  there  should   be   tive   wards,   as 
follows: 

1.  A  ward  for  fever  patients. 

2.  A  ward  for  the  wounded. 

.3.     A  ward  for  venereal  diseases. 

4.     A  ward  for  non-commissioned  officers. 

o.     A  ward  for  convalescents. 

According  to  the  same  author,  the  number  of  beds 
should  be  3  to  each  100  of  the  effective  strength.  This  num- 
ber may  suffice  if  it  be  made  to  apply  strictly  to  the  sick,  and 
the  convalescents  and  those  under  treatment  for  venereal  dis- 
eases sleep  in  ordinary  trooj)  beds.  Such  an  infirmary  should 
exist  only  at  posts  of  a  certain  importance,  garrisoned  by  sev- 
eral companies.  In  posts  garrisoned  by  less  than  a  hundred 
men,  a  simpler  place,  with  two  or  three  beds,  a  table,  an  arm- 
chair, chairs,  and  bath,  would  suffice.  It  would  be  well  if 
all  our  small  garrisons  were  so  provided. 

In  case  of  contagious  disease,  one  or  more  huts  can  be 
erected  in  which  to  care  for  the  sick.  They  should  after- 
wards be  burned. 

§  III.  Materiel  of  the  Medical  Department 
The  infirmaries  and  field  hospitals  of  the  colonial  posts 
are  not,  as  in  France,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  hospitals 
proper.  They  receive,  moreover,  a  great  number  of  serious 
cases.  It  may  even  happen  that  the  difficulty  of  communica- 
tions will  oblige  the  surgeon  to  keep  such  patients  there  a 
long  time.  In  short,  these  small  hos])itals  often  have  to  be 
used  in  the  same  way  as  the  hospitals  of  ships.  Now  the 
war-ship,  however  small  its  tonnage,  and  even  when  it 
remains  near  the  coasts,  has  its  medical  materiel  provided 
and  its  service  organized.    The  surgeon  possesses  personally 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  93 

a  surgeon's  case,  which  a  monthly  allowance  enables  him 
to  maintain.     There  is  a  pharmacy  aboard,  with  apparatus, 
medicines,  and  materials  for  dressings,  appropriate  to  the 
effective  strength  embarked.     All  is  foreseen:  the  furniture 
of  the  hospital,  the  special  food  for  the  sick,  a  field-chest  for 
first  aid  to  the  wounded,  a  disembarkation-bag.  and  litters 
specially  adapted  to  medical  or  surgical  needs  in  case  of 
disembarkation.    The  ships  are  no  more  deprived  of  medicine 
than  of  ammunition,  and  the  first-aid  chest  is  always  on  hand. 
Why  should  the  posts  in  the  colonies  be  deprived  of  any- 
thing that  is  necessary?    The  instruments  are  kept  in  a  box, 
which  is  often  in  bad  condition.    The  medicines  and  dressing 
materials  are  often  insufficient  in  quantity.     Many  of  the 
small  posts  are  even  denuded  of  all  means  of  assistance. 
Why  not  put  the  surgeon  at  such  a  place  in  the  same  situa- 
tion as  the  surgeon  atloat?    Why  not  devise,  for  each  colo- 
nial post,  a  supply-type  of  medicines  and  dressing  materials, 
analogous  to  that  of  the  ships? 

There  might  be  adojited,  iu  addition  to  the  main  sup- 
plies, a  series  of  4  chests : 

No.  1,  for  posts  of  10  men,  or  under. 
Xo,  2,  for  posts  of  10  to  20  meu. 
No.  ?>,  for  posts  of  20  to  40. men. 
No.  4,  for  posts  of  40  to  60  men. 

The  model  of  those  to  be  kept  iu  store-rooms  of  colonial 
hospitals  could  approximate  to  the  one  adopted  by  the 
Departments  of  War  and  Marine  for  the  supply  of  forts  and 
batteries  in  case  of  mobilizaticui.  These  chests  are  always 
prepared  in  advance  and  kept  in  the  store-rooms.  In  each 
newly  created  post  there  should  be  oire  or  more  chests, 
according  to  the  strength  of  garrison,  to  be  replaced  at  a 
fixed  date  or  when  there  is  need,  the  empty  chests  being 
returned  to  the  depot.    This  system  has  been  praised  for  the 


94  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

supply  of  ships;  it  would  be  of  the  greatest  service  iu  the 
colonies. 

These  medicine-chests  should  l)e  a  part  of  the  fixed  mate- 
riel, distinct  from  the  materiel  of  mobilization,  in  paniers, 
which  should  also  be  sujiplied,  as  we  shall  say  later  on. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  supply  for  each  infirmary  or  field 
hospital  in  the  colonies: 

1.  One  or  more  filters. 

2.  An  ice-machine. 

3.  Some  cooking  utensils. 

4.  Litters  or  hand-barrows  of  the  style  of  the  country. 

5.  In  certain  places  a  small  l)oat  for  the  transportation 
and  evacuation  of  the  sick. 

<).  A  very  clear  manual  of  instruction  in  first  aid  for 
sick  and  wounded. 

In  1886,  during  the  period  of  the  conquest  of  Tong-King. 
the  medical  director  of  the  expeditionary  corps,  M.  Dujardin- 
Beaumetz,  jtrejiaied,  tV)r  the  use  of  military  posts  without  a 
surgeon,  a  clear  and  concise  medical  manual,  which  corre- 
s])onded  ])erfectly  to  the  needs  of  the  moment.  Ri^-ent  works 
contain  similar  and  more  detailed  instructions. 

§  IV.  Repatriation  of  the  Sirl: 
To  repatriate  the  sick,  special  shijis  are  required.  Th(^ 
ordinary  ships  of  war,  the  ships  of  connnerce  most  rapid  and 
best  furnished  for  cari-ying  healthy  i)ersons,  do  not  often  ful 
till  tile  ic(piisite  conditions  for  the  sick.  The  jieriods  of 
return  have  not  always  been  judiciously  chosen,  at  least  in 
noinial  times. 

HOSPITALTRANSPORTvS. 

Fnv  many  long  yeais  the  r(^j»atriat  ion  of  the  sick  was 
acc()in|ilislie(l  in  a  dejiloiabie  manner. 

IJefoi-e  ls4(l.  in  Scneual.  nnfoituuate  convalescents  were 


Ui//jicne  of  Ihe  Soldier  tn.  llie  Tropics.  95 

crowded  upon  incumbered  sailing  vessels,  often  infected 
with  yellow  fever,  without  suitable  food,  without  medicines, 
sometimes  without  doctors;  they  returned  to  France  not  by 
the  shortest  route,  hut  lij  way  of  the  Antilles  and  Guiana. 

Later,  during  the  cami)aign  in  China, in  ISOO,  ships  of  war 
a  little  better  managed,  the  Vengeance,  the  Dri/ade,  the  Gar- 
onne, carried  out  troops  and  brought  ])ack  the  sick.  It  was 
the  same  during  the  campaign  in  Mexico.  The  large  sailers, 
the  Tage,  the  Navarin,  etc.,  converted  into  transports,  have 
long  performed  the  service  between  France  and  New  Cale- 
donia. The  last  types  used  foi-  this  purpose,  the  Magellan, 
the  Caledonien,  were  better  adapted  and  more  approi)riate  to 
their  special  service.  They  were  large  sailers,  furnished  with 
a  little  engine  to  be  used  in  calms.  Their  maritime  existence 
was  ephemeral;  as  hospital-transports,  moreover,  their  ser- 
vice would  have  been  much  restricted  for  want  of  the  sick. 

At  the  beginning  of  our  occupation  of  Cochin-China,  the 
Orne,  the  C reuse,  and  the  Sortlie  marked  serious  i)rogress; 
and  yet,  although  sufticient  for  well  troojis,  they  were  not 
adapted  for  the  repatriation  of  the  sick. 

It  was  not  until  November  20,  ISTT,  that  there  started 
from  Toulon  th<^  first  type  of  the  veritable  hospital-trans- 
port, the  Annandte,  measuring  105  meters  in  length,  gauging 
;U00  tons,  and  possessing  an  engine  of  050  horse-power. 
Five  transports  of  the  same  type,  the  Tong-King,  Mijtho, 
Shamrocl;  Bien-Hoa,  and  Vinh-Long,  were  successively  con- 
structed at  La  Seyne.  The  Gironde  and  the  Nive,  constructed 
a  little  later,  were  fitted  up  to  transport  cavalry. 

These  eight  ships,  all  of  iron,  except  the  Annainite,  wer.^ 
perfectly  ada])ted  to  the  transportation  of  the  sick.  The 
upper  broadside  could  accommodate  150  bed-ridden  patients, 
and  the  1ow«m"  one  :^00  convalescents.  The  system  of  bedding 
was  good;  the  ventilation  easy,  thanks  to  a  system  of  double 


96  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

partitious  aud  to  horizoutal  wind  trails,  windowed  at  inter- 
vals and  closed  by  grooved  obturators. 

Up  to  1886,  these  ships  worked  alone;  from  1886  to  1895, 
they  were  employed  in  connection  with  ships  chartered  by 
the  State;  actually,  ttiey  are  iinmohilized. 

They  have  repatriated  about  12,000  sick  or  convalescents 
with  only  18  deaths  per  1000,  notwithstanding  the  dangers 
of  the  voyage  across  the  Indian  Ocean  and  through  the 
Red  Sea. 

It  may  be  said  that  these  ships  were  operated  hygien- 
ical ly.  They  have  rendered  service,  not  only  in  repatriation, 
but  also  as  hospital  ships  in  Dahomey  and  Madagascar. 

It  is  particularly  interesting  to  see  the  service  these 
ships  were  capable  of  performing  in  repatriation.  The  sur- 
geons fixed  the  total  number  to  be  embarked  at  1000  per- 
sons, 400  to  500  of  whom  were  sick,  half  of  them  bed-ridden. 
We  know  this  limit  was  often  exceeded',  but  that  was  wrong. 

In  the  ]Marine,  the  officers,  surgeons,  and  especially  the 
sick,  were  unanimous  in  proclaiming  the  excellence  of  the 
system.  One  of  us.  after  four  passages,  two  of  which  were 
return  trips,  is  of  the  same  opinion;  the  more  so  because  some 
of  these  voyages  were  made  under  unfavorable  conditions, 
with  1200  and  1300  persons  on  board. 

If  a  comparison  be  made  between  these  ships  and  the 
chartered  vessels,  the  advantage  is  not  with  the  latter;  while 
excellent  for  the  transport  of  well  men.  they  nre  inferior  as 
transports  for  the  sick. 

From  1886  to  1895,  the  ti:insi)orts  of  the  Srate  liave  h.i.l 
a  mortality  of  18  per  1000,  while  the  chartered  ships,  for  the 
same  number  of  sick,  about  12,000,  have  had  a  mortality  of 
26  per  1000. 

It  is  well  to  remark  that,  wheuevei-  possible,  the  most 
serious  cases  were  reserved  for  the  hos|»itMl-tiansports. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  97 

The  utilization  of  the  chartered  ><hii>s  and  the  placiu^  in 
reserve  of  the  trausports  of  the  State  has  thus  constituted  a 
progress  hacl-ivurd  from  a  hygienic  standpoint. 

AATiether  the  service  of  repatriation  falls  upon  the  State 
or  upon  the  commercial  companies,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
shi])s  be  fitted  up  and  managed  for  the  special  use  to  which 
they  are  to  be  put. 

The  tieet  of  transports  to  succeed  the  old  ought  to  be 
litted  up  conformably  to  the  progress  of  industry  and  of 
naval  hjgiene. 

For  the  ordinary  transport  service  the  type  Shamrork 
might  be  suitable,  with  certain  modifications.  A  ship  from 
125  to  130  meters  in  length  would  be  better;  it  could  receive 
500  sick  with  more  room  for  isolation,  cleanliness,  and  disin- 
fection. The  lower  broadside  could  have  two  rows  of  cots 
for  the  less  severe  cases  and  for  the  <-onvalescents;  the  upper 
one,  a  single  row  for  bed-ridden  patients.  The  deck  should  be 
reserved  for  those  seriously  sick,  (luartered  in  special  wards, 
having  a  special  and  imi)roved  bedding.  Isolation  and  dis- 
infection wards  would  be  necessary. 

It  would  be  well  to  provide  steam  ventilators  for  forcing 
in  the  fresh  and  drawing  out  the  foul  air. 

Distilled  water  only  should  be  used,  for  soft  water  in  a 
hospital,  whether  ashore  or  afloat,  is  a  prime  necessity.  It 
is  necessary  then  to  provide  for  making  it  on  board  in  great 
quantities,  and  the  apparatus  uiust  assure  a  constant  supply. 

The  question  of  the  manufacture  of  ice  aboard  ship  is 
not  yet  practically  solved.  For  some  years,  the  Rouart,  an 
ammonia  system,  has  been  tried  in  the  Marine.  An  apparatus 
of  this  type  was  tried  on  the  Minerro,  at  Gabon;  another  at 
Kotonou,  during  the  Dahomey  expedition;  we  understand 
they  did  not  work  very  well.  A  Rouart  apparatus  was  deliv- 
ered to  the  Shanirocl':  but  when  it  came  to  setting  it  up,great 

7 


98  Hijijicnc  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

difficulties  were  encountered:  in  the  first  jilace,  a  masonry 
support  had  to  be  constructed;  then,  detailed  instructions 
were  lacking.  In  short,  this  ai)]jaratus.  by  which  cold  is 
obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  liciuetied  aniuiouiacal  gas, has 
never  worked;  it  is  not  practical  for  ships. 

The  frigori/ic,  based  upon  the  principle  of  the  expansion 
of  compressed  air,  and  employed  upon  certain  ships  of  the 
merchant  fleet  for  the  ]U'eservation  of  food,  seems  to  be  the 
most  practical  ajjparatus:  a  motor,  which  borrows  steam 
from  a  boiler,  forces  air  into  a  compressor  cylinder,  and 
makes  it  j»ass  into  a  detainer. 

The  illumination  should  be  by  electricity. 

The  funnel  should  be  enveloped  by  double  partitions 
separated  by  free  spaces,  forming  a  mattress  of  air. 

The  water-closets  for  men  and  officers  ought  to  be  dis- 
posed as  })rescribed  by  the  ministerial  desi)atch  of  the  13th 
of  February,  180.3.  A  great  improvement,  carried  out  upon 
the  hospital-transports  of  the  Shamrorl-  type,  has  been  the 
placing  of  the  closets  for  the  men  on  the  exterior  of  the  ship, 
permitting  the  application  of  the  inincijile,  Everything  to 
the  sea. 

The  kitchens  should  be  i)rovided  with  all  the  utensils 
necessary  for  the  good  working  of  a  hospital. 

A  cleaning-room  and  isolation  waids  are  indispensable. 
Finally,  the  mechanical  windlasses  ought  to  b(^  icudered 
silent. 

CONDITIONS    OF    REPATRIATION. 

AMien  possible,  the  time  of  repatriation  should  be 
chosen.  Attention  should  be  given  to  the  st^ason  in  wliirli 
the  voyage  is  to  be  made,  and  to  the  tinu^  when  the  ana*mic 
men,  sometimes  gi'avely  attacked,  will  arrive  in  France. 
These  matters  are  not  iiiditTerent.  as  is  al)oni  to  be  shown. 


llijijicne  uf  Ihe  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  99 

The  percentage  of  deaths  is  not  the  same  in  the  voyages 
made  by  the  same  ships  at  different  periods  of  the  year. 

In  making  an  abstract  of  the  deaths  which  occurred  on 
the  92  voyages  from  Saigon  to  France  on  board  the  trans- 
ports of  the  State  and  the  chartered  vessels,  during  the  ])eriod 
from  1886  to  1895,  we  have  the  following  results: 

Number  Number  Average 

Leaviug  Saigon.  ^^^of^^^  ^^of^^^  ^.P-^^ 

January '''  '^'^  ^•■^ 

February 8  35  4.^ 

March 0  18  ^-^^ 

April 6  80  5.0 

May 5  23  4.5 

June <^>  40  6.0 

July 8  fi8  8.5 

August 11  ^-^  '^•4 

September 10  82  8.2 

October ^  26  4.3 

November ^  '^^^  ^-^ 

December 10  '-^^  ^'^ 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  half-year  from  April  to  October 
shows  the  greater  proportion  of  deaths.  The  number  of 
voyages  was  46,  exactly  the  same  as  the  number  during  the 
most  favorable  half-year,  from  October  to  March,  which  was 
likewise  46;  and  nevertheless  the  difference  is  more  than  one- 
third.  During  the  six  months  of  A])ril,  May,  June,  July, 
August,  and  September,  we  count  32(;  deaths,  giving  an 
average  of  6.7  per  voyage;  during  the  six  other  months,  we 
have  only  190  deaths,  with  an  average  of  4  per  voyage. 

In  the  half-year  in  which  most  deaths  occurred  we  also 
remark  a  notable  difference  between  the  first  and  second 
quarter.  Duiing  the  months  of  April,  ]May,  and  June  there 
were  17  voyages  and  an  average  of  5.4  deaths  per  voyage; 


100  Hygiene  of  the  tSukUer  in  the  Tropics. 

during  July,  August,  and  i^epteinber.  there  were  29  voyages 
and  233  deaths,  an  average  of  8. 

It  is  precisely  the  quarter  in  which  most  deaths  occurred 
that  shows  the  greatest  number  of  voj'ages!  This  fact  is 
curious,  or  at  least  hizarre. 

The  reason  might  be  found  in  the  fact  that  at  this  period 
of  the  year  the  number  of  sick  is  greater  in  the  colonies  and 
the  cases  re(iuiring  repatriation  are  more  grave.  The  mor- 
tality is,  in  fact,  much  greater  in  Indo-China,  in  the  corre- 
sponding periods;  were  it  otherwise,  the  matter  would  be 
incomprehensible. 

In  studying  the  figures  given  by  M.  Bonnafy,  upon  the 
mortality  on  board  the  transports  and  chartered  vessels,  we 
find  an  interesting  remark. 

From  1879  to  1883,  when  the  sick  rei>atriated  from  Indo- 
China  all  or  nearly  all  came  from  Saigon,  when  only  six  voy- 
ages were  n.iade  a  year  and  the  state  transports  were  ex- 
clusively used,  only  a  slight  difference  in  the  mortality  is 
observed  during  the  passages  at  different  seasons  of  the 
year. 

Thus  for  31  voyages  made  in  five  years,  with  5399  sick 
and  95  deaths,  or  17.0  per  1000.  the  following  is  the  record: 

--        .       1,    .  Mortality  during 

Leaving  baigon.  tlje  Voyage. 

January 12  per  1000 

March 10  per  1000 

May 10  per  1000 

July 18  per  1000 

September 17  per  1000 

Novembei- 22  per  1000 

It  should  be  stated  thiit  it  is  difficult  to  form  pioper  con- 
clusions based  upon  a  relatively  small  number  of  sick  and  a 
rathei-  limited  number  of  voyages. 

The  proportions  are  sh(»wu  under  a  different  aspect  in 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  101 

coiisidei'iiifr  the  voyages  made  fioni  1SS()  to  1895,  in  the 
evacuatiou  of  all  ludo-Chiiui. 

In  92  passages  by  the  transports  of  the  State  and  the 
chartered  vessels,  with  22,0(55  sick  and  51(»  deaths,  or  18  per 
1000  on  the  transports  and  26  per  1000  on  the  chartered  ves- 
sels, the  following  is  observed : 

'.  Proportion  of 
Leaving  Saigon.  Deaths  during 

the  Voyage. 

January 21  per  1000 

February 13  per  1000 

March 12  per  1000 

April 15  per  1000 

May 16  per  1000 

Jnne '29  per  1000 

July 33  per  1000 

August 29  per  1000 

September 35  per  1000 

October 20  per  1000 

November 19  per  1000 

December 17  per  1000 

The  least  mortality  is  observed  during  February.  ^lareh, 
and  April;  beginning  with  the  month  i»f  ^lay,  the  increase  is 
progressive  until  October;  during  November,  December,  and 
January,  the  projiortion  is  a  mean  between  the  two  extremes. 

In  short,  the  most  favorable  season  for  repatriation  is 
that  of  the  months  February  and  March;  the  dangerous 
period,  June,  July,  August,  and  September. 

The  reason  is  easily  seen.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  the 
southwest  monsoon  is  very  cool;  the  sea  is  rough,  the  air 
sharp,  and  diarrhoea  reappears.  In  the  Red  Sea  the  heat  is 
overpowering,  because  there  is  little  breeze  and  it  comes 
from  behind;  the  heat  adds  a  particular  stamp  to  the  dis- 
eases, it  depresses  certain  cachectics  and  deprives  them  of 
all  resisting  power. 


102  Hygiene  of  the  ISohlier  in  the  Tropics. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  danger  of  the 
passage  results  above  all  from  the  gymnastics  which  should 
be  executed  by  the  skin  and  the  lungs  in  order  to  put  tht^ 
body  in  equilil)riuni  with  the  surrounding  medium.  If  the 
temperature  jumps  up  ten  degrees  and  remains  there  for  sev- 
eral days,  the  cutaneous  and  pulmonary  excretions  ought  to 
increase  in  order  to  prevent  the  heat  from  being  concentrated 
in  the  organism;  this  increase  of  excretions  does  not  take 
place  in  the  case  of  men  who  are  too  weak.  There  is  an  aggra- 
vation of  the  condition  of  the  sick;  it  is  not  unusual  to 
ol)Serve  convalescents  overcome  by  the  heat,  and  a  form  of 
delirium  which  impels  cachectics  and  paludal  patients  to 
throw  themselves  into  the  sea. 

September  is  the  worst  month,  because  it  is  the  hottest 
in  the  Red  Sea.  The  higher  the  sun  is,  at  noon,  the  higher 
the  temperature;  but  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  highest  tern 
peratures  art^  slightly  later  than  the  miximum  height  of  the 
sun,  which  is,  however,  a  general  rule  of  Nalni-e,  the  ett'ect 
being  always  posterior  to  the  cause. 

The  transports  of  the  State  were  well  conceived  from  the 
standpoint  of  hygiene,  l)ut  were  very  faulty  in  regard  to 
speed.  Remaining  in  the  nc^ighborhood  of  the  equator  is  a 
real  hardship  for  tlu-  sick,  and  the  shi}»s  of  repatriati<»n 
should  have  great  speed  in  older  to  cross  the  dangei-ous  zoni' 
most  rapidly. 

If  th(^  time  of  ci'ossing  the  hot  seas  is  not  a  matter  of 
indifference  to  the  sick,  the  time  of  arrival  in  France  has 
also  its  importance,  ^^'in1er  is  an  unfavorable  season,  and 
if  it  is  desired  to  counteibalaiice  the  bad  etVects  of  the  shari* 
cold  of  the  (-(tuntries  of  the  North,  it  is  useful  to  keep  the  sick 
for  some  time  in  the  South.  .Men  who  returned  from  the 
colonies  in  a  relatively  satisfactory  condition  fre<piently 
enter  the  hospitals  a  few  months  later,  with  a  return  of  diar- 


Hyqicue  of  l/ie  t^uhlier  in  the  Twpics.  103 

rha'ci  or  of  fever.  The  suddeu  (-hauges  of  temperature  are 
the  principal  causes  of  these  interminable  relapses,  which 
transform  men  in  jjjood  enough  condition  on  their  arrival 
into  valetudinarians  for  long  months  and  sometimes  for 
whole  years. 

Each  colony  should  have  at  heart  the  speedy  possession 
of  sanitary  stations  specially  reserved  for  the  use  of  con- 
valescents; there  they  could  await,  under  very  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  propitious  time  for  their  return  to  France. 


104  Hij(jiene  of  the  Holdier  in  the  Tropics. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Sanitary  Police. 

AH  the  ineasuies  wliicli  jiiecede  have  a  real  value  in 
increasing  the  resistance  of  the  men  to  disease  and  in  assur- 
ing them  proper  care  in  ease  they  are  attacked. 

However,  certain  epidemic  diseases,  brought  from  with- 
out, as  we  have  shown,  develop  with  such  rapidity  that  it  is 
important,  lirst  of  all.  to  ])revent  access  to  our  possessions; 
and  if  this  should  be  imixissible,  in  spite  of  all  vigilance, 
then  to  take  the  most  rigorous  measures. 

§  I.     Commission  of  Ili/ijieiw. 

The  organization  of  a  good  sanitary  i)olice  is  prescribed 
in  each  of  our  colonies.  This  should  furnish  sufficient  pro- 
tection, under  the  control  of  the  governor,  seconded,  from  a 
technical  standpoint.  l>y  the  medical  authorities. 

Formerly  the  ordonnafcur,  or  chief  of  the  health  service, 
represented  the  surgeons  in  the  council  of  hygiene;  but  it  is 
evident  that  he  could  not  re]»la(e  them.  This  anomaly  has 
been  suppressed,  and  with  reason,  for  it  is  well  that  each 
should  have  the  responsibilities  of  his  own  functions. 

At  the  present  time,  in  commissions  of  hygiene,  there  is 
place  for  the  i»resident  of  the  council  of  health,  the  surgeon 
of  the  local  service,  and  the  surgeon  of  the  nrraisso)ieinenls; 
but  they  ai'e  not  all:  the  municipal  council,  the  giMieral  coun- 
cil, and  many  other  military  or  civil  services  are  represented 
there.  When  it  concerns  a  question  of  general  interest, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  said;  but  in  certain  cases,  Avhen  the 
public  health  is  alone  at  stake,  it  is  to  be  feared  thai  a  com- 
mission so  composed  might  be  insjtired  by  considerations 
foreign  to  the  subject. 


.    ,  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  I'ropics.  105 

Would  it  uot  be  better  to  have  a  permanent  commission, 
whicli  could  submit,  upon  occasion,  its  opinion,  with  the 
reasons  therefor,  to  the  governor,  charged  with  making  a 
decision? 

We  willingly  share  the  yiews  of  Doctor  Simon  relative 
to  the  reform  of  councils  of  hygiene,  and  propose  to  replace 
them  by  a  commission  made  up  as  follows:  The  chief  of  the 
service  of  health,  president;  the  chief  of  the  service  of  phar- 
macy; the  chief  surgeon  of  the  troops;  a  civil  surgeon;  a  civil 
pharmacist;  the  two  latter  chosen  by  the  governor. 

This  purely  technical  commission,  in  which  the  inter- 
ests of  local  commerce  and  of  the  municipality  would  find 
competent  defenders,  could  give  a  hearing  to  such  persons  as 
it  might  desire  to  consult — surgeons,  functionaries,  av  otti- 
cers — and  immediately  present  its  report  and  conclusions 
to  the  governor  of  the  colony. 

In  case  of  threatened  epidemic,  and,  above  all,  of  epi- 
demic invasion,  there  would  thus  be  avoided  many  idle  and 
sterile  discussions,  too  often  ending  in  the  adoption  of  use- 
less or  incomplete  measures,  or  even  measures  contrary  to 
prudence. 

The  governor  could  call  for  the  opinion  of  the  commis- 
sion of  hygiene  whenever  he  considered  it  necessary  to  do  so, 
and  could  convoke  that  body  in  case  of  need. 

It  is  not  only  indispensable  to  protect  the  colonies 
against  the  invasion  and  spread  of  epidemics,  but  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  ever}-  contagious  disease  implanted  in 
one  of  our  possessions  becomes  a  menace  to  France,  on  ac- 
count of  the  rapidity  and  frequency  of  communication. 

The  prevention  of  epidemic  diseases  cannot  be  accom- 
plished by  following  an  invariable  formula.  'To  combat 
them  with  equal  energy  in  all  places  would  be  an  error  of 
geography;  with  equal  energy  at  all  times,  an  anachi'onism.'' 


106  lii/(/icnc  of  llie  Soldier  in  llic  Tropics. 

The  system  of  prevention  vvhicli  ought  to  be  inspired  in  its 
details  by  circumstances  and  places  comprehends:  1.  Ad- 
ministrative measures;    li.  Hygienic  measures. 

§  II.  Admin isfraiive  Measures. 
More  authoritative  in  character  than  hygienic  measures, 
as  M.  L.  Colin  says,  the  administrative  measures  would  be 
contrary  to  the  dignity  of  man,  if  they  alone  were  employed. 
Joined  with  hygienic  measures,  they  are  perfectly  justified, 
and  may  be  classed  in  four  groups: 

1.  The  evacuation  of  epidemic  centers. 

2.  Vaccination. 

8.     The  isolation  of  contagious  diseases. 
4.     Quarantine. 

EVACUATION    OF    EPIDEMIC   CENTERS. 

In  the  presence  of  certain  menacing  or  declared  dis 
eases,  the  council  of  hygiene  has  the  right  and  the  duty  of 
preventing  assemblies  of  recent  arrivals  in  the  town  which 
is  attacked  or  is  under  suspicion.  The  gatherings  resulting 
from  the  approach  of  festivals,  pilgrimages,  etc.,  should  be 
dissolved,  and  these  solemnities  prohibited  in  case  of  need. 
Finally,  in  the  general  interest,  and  aside  from  extra 
hygienic  prejudice,  the  council  should,  above  all,  order  the 
immediate  withdrawal  of  the  troo]»s  fiom  the  centers  of 
population.  It  was  by  withdiawing  the  soldiers  of  the  white 
race  from  Vera  Ciuz,  during  the  expedition  to  Mexico,  that 
the  frequency  of  the  yell(»w  fever  was  diminished.  In  1SS4, 
M.  L.  Colin  did  not  hesitate  to  i-ecommend  tiie  sending  t<» 
their  homes  of  all  the  soldiers  of  the  Army  of  Paris  who  weic 
even  simply  indisposed,  to  preserve  them  from  the  cholera 
which  menaced  the  garrison. 

This  would  l)e  a  measure  to  take  in  our  ]>ossessi(»ns  in 
Indo-China,  whenever  there  is  cause  to  fear  the  approach  of 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  107 

cholera  at  the  centeis.  It  is,  moieover,  what  is  doue  in  case 
of  yellow  fever  in  our  colonies  of  the  Antilles. 

When  the  evacuation  is  ordered,  it  is  an  advantage  to 
proceed  before  the  appearance  of  the  plague  among  the  men ; 
otherwise  they  carry  the  disease  with  them  and  propagate  it. 

To  obviate  this  dispersion  of  the  plague,  it  is  well,  at  the 
time  of  the  evacuation,  to  isolate  the  troops  by  establishing 
sanitary  camps,  analogous  to  those  which  exist  in  India, 
tUiadaloupe,  and  Martinique. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  soldiers  can  not  be  camped 
in  the  open  air,  in  the  colonies,  as  is  done  in  Europe.  It 
would  also  be  wise,  until  we  shall  abandon  the  towns  of  the 
plains  for  the  heights,  to  erect  suitable  buildings  in  these 
[tosts  of  refuge.  Now,  the  huts  provided  for  this  use,  not- 
withstanding the  serA'ices  they  have  rendered,  are  often  in  a 
state  of  dilapidation  which  renders  their  occu])ancy  more 
dangerous  than  efficacious,  and  conditions  are  sometimes 
found  propitious  for  bringing  to  life  the  germs  with  which 
the  troops  placed  there  are  impregnated. 

In  Indo-China,  in  time  of  cholera,  there  is  a  cause  of 
propagation  which  has  not  received  sufficient  attention. 
This  is  the  possibility  of  the  dissemination  of  the  disease  by 
the  natives  employed  during  the  day  at  the  European  homes 
in  the  towns.  In  the  evening,  these  natives  return  to  their 
villages,  which  are  often  decimated,  at  certain  epochs,  by 
the  Asiatic  plague.  The  measures  to  take,  in  such  a  case, 
seem  to  us  to  again  depend  upon  the  council  of  hygiene. 

It  is  the  same  with  measures  relative  to  the  agglomera- 
tions of  natives,  principally  in  the  localities  inhabited  by 
Europeans. 

VACCINATION. 

Variola  is  spread  in  our  colonies  to  such  an  extent,  and 
has  caused  such  ravages  among  the  populations  subject  to 


108  H i/fjiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

our  control,  tliat,  in  their  interest  as  well  as  in  ours,  on 
account  of  the  contagion  which  is  always  possible,  it  has 
long  been  a  duty  to  regulate,  and  even  to  order,  vaccination 
in  our  colonial  possessions. 

Vaccination  works  very  well  in  Indo-China,  especially 
since  the  creation  of  a  vaccination  center  at  Saigon,  the  bene- 
fits of  which  extend  over  all  the  Far  East. 

Vaccination  has  also  been  instituted  in  Senegal  and  in 
the  Soudan;  the  Canacjues,  in  New  Caledonia,  have  also 
been  vaccinated. 

It  is  important  that  administrations  as  well  as  popula- 
tions be  impressed  with  this  truth,  expressed  by  L.  Colin: 
Prevention  by  vaccination  is  not  assured  by  the  performance 
and  success  of  a  single  ojieration;  even  when  successful,  it 
constitutes  only  the  first  term  of  the  series  of  inoi-ulations  to 
impose  upon  each  subject. 

In  short,  revaccinations  are  indispensable;  and  if  this 
belief  is  impressed  with  difficulty  on  the  minds  of  the  free 
native  populations,  we  ought  never  to  lose  sight  of  it  as  far 
as  our  native  military  contingents  are  concerned. 

ISOLATION. 

The  construction  of  isolated  pavilions  for  persons  at- 
tacked by  contagious  diseases  has  not  always  been  thought 
of  in  the  colonial  hospitals.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  iso- 
lation is  an  efficacious  measure  of  prevention. 

In  the  absence  <if  s]ie<ial  hospitals,  there  must  be  au 
absolute  specialization  of  \\\v  wards  and  pavilions  used  for 
those  afflicted  with  contagious  diseases — dysenteries,  for 
examjile. 

Without  wishing  to  discuss  modes  of  contagion  at  this 
time,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  wt^ll-known  fact  of 
transmission.     A  dysenteric  placed  iu  the  sauie  medium  as 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  109 

another  patient  without  t^igus  of  intestinal  flux  can  eom- 
niuuicate  the  disease  to  him. 

At  least  this  is  what  has  been  reported  by  Huguet,  on 
board  the  Drijade,  in  the  case  of  men  served  with  the  com- 
modes of  their  neighbors.  It  is  what  was  manifestly  shown 
on  board  the  Loiret,  where  the  dysenteries  coming  from 
Gabon  contaminated  all  the  equipage. 

More  recently,  in  Senegal,  in  1883,  in  the  camp  of  Kafta. 
the  Marocains,  quartered  in  straw  huts  at  the  rate  of  ten  in 
each,  all  contracted  dysentery  successively  as  soon  as  a 
single  one  of  them  carried  the  germs  of  the  disease  into  a  hut. 

Finally,  observations  more  precise  and  scientific  have 
been  made  in  the  hospital  of  Saint-Mandrier.  by  Doctor  Ber- 
trand,  chief  surgeon  of  Marine,  v/ho  has  seen  a  considerable 
number  of  cases  contracted  in  the  dysenteric  wards. 

The  military  hospital  of  Noumea,  suitable  enough  in 
other  respects,  contains  no  special  wards  for  dysenteries.  It 
is  the  same  with  the  military  hospital  of  Saint-Louis  in  Sene- 
gal: it  is  a  large,  spacious,  two-storied  building,  but  leaves 
some  things  to  be  desired. 

The  hospital  of  Saigon  is  perhaps  the  best  model  to  give 
future  constructions:  It  includes  a  principal  pavilion,  sev- 
eral other  pavilions,  and  the  out-houses.  Of  late  years,  pavil- 
ions have  been  constructed  which  have  been  well  isolated 
and  perfectly  adapted  for  men  attacked  by  contagious  dis- 
eases. The  number  and  the  disposition  (if  the  wards  permit 
the  complete  isolation  of  dysenteries  in  special  quarters,  pro- 
vided with  their  own  out-buildings. 

This  system  of  special  pavilions  ought  to  be  adopted  for 
all  transmissible  affections. 

With  reference  to  extremely  contagious  diseases,  such 
as  cholera  or  yellow  fever,  it  would  be  better  to  resort  to 
special  hospitals  removed  to  a  considerable  distance.     This 


110  Tlyijiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

is  the  ouly  suitable  aiiaiigeiuent;  tlie  pavilions  annexed  to 
the  ordinary  hospitals  do  not  accomplish  the  object,  on 
account  of  the  connnnnity  of  general  services. 

It  would  be  easy,  however,  to  extemporize,  at  very  small 
expense,  and  upon  ground  reserved  for  such  use,  huts  which 
could  be  burned  at  the  end  of  the  epidemic,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  metallic  frames.  Constructions  of  this  kind 
establislied  in  Cochin-China,  near  Saigon,  in  1884,  for  the 
isolation  of  cholera  patients,  gave  excellent  results.  They 
should  be  jnovided  as  annexes  of  the  colonial  hospitals  in 
all  our  ])ossessions. 

QUARANTINE. 

The  quarantine  of  ships,  the  temporary  se(iuestration  of 
their  passengers,  the  disinfection,  and,  if  necessary,  sanitary 
unloading,  until  iccently  constituted  all  the  means  for  clos- 
ing a  port  of  our  colonies  to  certain  plagues. 

The  decree  of  these  measures  jiertains  to  the  council  of 
hygiene,  and  it  is  chiefly  in  regard  to  yellow  fever  and 
cholera  that  vigilance  and  severity  should  be  doubled. 

To-day  the  tendency  of  the  French  sanitary  police  is  to 
substitute  for  the  preventive  measures  taken  on  arrival, 
measures  taken  at  the  point  of  departure  and  during  the  voy- 
age. This  tendency  has  been  aproved  by  all  the  interna- 
tional sanitary  conferences  of  recent  years,  and  has  icsulted 
in  a  complete  change  from  former  re(iuirements. 

Ships  coming  from  contaminated  countries,  if  they  have 
been  regularly  disinfected  at  the  ])oint  of  de])arture  or  dur- 
ing the  voyage  and  if  the  sanitary  conditions  on  board  are 
satisfactory,  can  obtain  pratique  on  arrival,  even  with  an 
unclean  bill  of  licaKli.  Such  is  the  base  of  the  new  regnla 
tion  of  maritime  sanitary  jjolice. 

Thus,  in  France,  the  (piarantine  of  observation,  which 
was  the  rule  for  sliiits  coming  from  countries  suspected  of 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  Ill 

cholera   or  yellow   fever,  has  been  replaced  by  a   medical 
iuspectiou  iipou  arrival,  but  a  thoroui/h  and  rigid  inspection. 

This  change  constitutes  in  itself  an  immense  advance 
;\nd  a  great  advantage  to  connuerce,  which  has  shown  its 
appreciation  l)y  im])roving  the  hygienic  condition  of  its 
ships. 

A  decree,  of  date  the  31st  of  March,  1897,  publishes  the 
regulations  of  the  maritime  sanitary  police  in  the  colonies 
and  countries  of  the  protectorate  of  the  'French  Republic. 
This  new  measure  is  absolutely  justified. 

Indeed,  as  MM.  Brouardel  and  Proust  have  judiciously 
remarked,  disinfection  is  the  first  means  to  employ  to  pre- 
vent the  importation  of  morbific  germs.  I'rolong  the  (]uar- 
antine  for  weeks,  and,  once  terminated,  allow  the  passengers 
to  leave  with  their  baggage  full  of  infected  linen  or  their 
clothing  contaminated,  and  you  have  prevented  nothing — 
you  have  only  pi-escribed  a  vexatious  measure  to  trouble 
commercial  interests,  and  you  have  in  no  way  guarded  the 
public  health. 

Disinfection,  on  the  contrary,  makes  (juarantine  useless 
and  gives  a  complete  guaranty  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 
If  it  is  properly  performed  at  the  point  of  departure  or  during 
a  long  voyage,  a  medical  inspection  at  the  port  of  arrival 
will  suffice.  If  the  measures  have  been  well  taken  and  the 
testimony  of  the  surgeon  is  worthy  of  credence,  pratique  may 
be  safely  accorded. 

The  corollary  of  these  benevolent  and  liberal  measures 
would  be  the  installation,  in  the  lazarets  of  our  colonies,  of 
apparatus  for  disinfection  by  vapor  under  pressure,  like 
those  of  the  ports  of  France.  These  apparatus  should  also 
be  found  on  all  the  troop-transports. 

With  disinfection  on  departure  and  during  the  voyage, 
the  use  of  lazarets  will  become  less  and  less  necessarv,  and 


112  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

they  may  be  advantageously  replaced  by  simple  sanitary  sta- 
tions a  short  distance  from  the  ports.  These  stations  would 
be  of  more  service  than  the  lazarets;  they  could  receive  the 
sick,  if  provided  with  disinfection  materiel. 

Finally,  in  the  colonies,  where  eruptive  fevers,  chietiy 
variola,  and  also  diphtheria,  are  feared  almost  as  much  as 
cholera,  great  watchfulness  is  necessary.  If  a  ship  arrive 
with  sick  attacked  by  eruptive  fevers,  disinfection  should  be 
proceeded  with  before  permission  is  given  1o  hold  communi- 
cation with  the  shore.  The  same  is  true  of  typhus,  with 
regard  to  which  too  great  precautions  cannot  be  taken. 

These  remarks  are  the  more  important,  as  the  last  affec- 
tions have  not  been  provided  for  by  the  maritime  sanitary 
regulations  of  the  parent  State.  Indeed,  in  France,  these 
affections  being  considered  as  indigenous,  less  care  has  been 
taken  regarding  their  importation  by  the  maritime  route. 

§  III.     Hygienic  Measvres. 
It  remains  for  us  to  consider  the  truly  hygienic  meas- 
ures, which  are  of  two  kinds:  disinfection  and  the  sanitation 
of  towns. 

DISINFECTION. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  case  of  an  epidemic  is  to 
disseminate  the  troops  before  the  plague  attacks  them;  but 
before  this  a  system  of  disinfection  should  have  been  pro- 
vided. The  interests  of  the  population,  as  well  as  of  the 
soldiers,  deinand  i)rom])t  and  effective  action  on  the  part  of 
the  authorities.  The  epidemic  germ  must  be  suppressed,  as 
far  as  possible,  from  the  moment  it  appi^ars. 

Cholera  and  yellow  fever,  of  which  we  have  cited  only 
too  many  examples,  have  reappeared  after  an  interval  of 
years,  solely  because  contaminated  clothing  was  not 
destroyed  and  apparel  and  bedding,  used  by  the  sick,  were 
not  disinfected  or  were  disinfected  imperfectly. 


Hi/fliciif  of  Ihc  SnlfJier  in  llir  Tropics.  113 

Disinfection  slionld  not  bo  left  to  the  initiative  of  coni- 
niandin«;  oftieeis,  nor  to  tliat  of  the  civil  anthoiities,  Enro- 
pean  or  native.  Its  importance  is  great  and  its  execntion 
shouhi  he  surroinnhHl  by  all  the  gnaranties  for  the  conunon 
safetv.  rpon  the  recommendation  of  the  conncil  of  hygiene, 
the  chief  of  the  colony  himself  shonld  order  it,  and  the  civil 
and  military  powers  shonld  act  in  concert  and  give  mntnal 
aid  in  the  pcrfoiniance  of  the  work  on  wliicli  the  safety  of  all 
depends. 

Every  large  colonial  town  shonld  be  provided  with  sev- 
eral apparatus: 

1.  (xeneste-Herscher  stoves  would  suffice  for  the  sani 
tary  woik  of  both  the  garrison  and  the  population. 

1'.  The  \'aillard  transportable  stove  would  answer  for 
secondary  posts. 

H.  The  snmll  centeis  or  isolated  posts  should  receive 
steeping-vats,  with  sufficient  instructions  for  their  use  when 
required. 

There  should  likewise  be  a  supply  of  sulphur,  bichloride 
of  uun-cury.  sul]ihate  of  copjier,  chloride  of  lime,  and  chloride 
of  zinc,  at  the  disposition  of  the  council  of  hygiene  of  each 
colonial  town,  or  of  its  re]»resentative,  wh(»  \vf)uld  naturally 
be  the  surgeon,  in  the  least  important  centers.  These  are 
necessary  for  protection,  by  all  the  measures  of  disinfection 
ordered,  either  in  view  of  a  jiossible  epidemic,  or  after  ascer- 
taining that  a  case  exists  at  any  point,  whether  simply  sus- 
pected or  positively  known  to  be  of  a  contagious  nature. 

When  he  considers  it  expedient,  the  surgeon  delegated 
by  the  sanitai-A'  conncil  should  centralize  the  service  of  dis- 
infection in  ord<n-  t(»  take  charge  of  its  direction,  and  should 
come  to  an  understanding  with  the  senior  surgeon  on  duty 
with  the  rroops  of  the  garrison,  to  the  end  that  identical 
measures  umy  be  taken  in  the  barracks. 
8 


114  Hygiene  of  the  Suldier  in  the  Tropict^. 

In  case  of  epidemic  localized  iu  barracks,  the  military 
authority  should  take  the  initiative,  but  not  without  inform- 
ing the  council  of  hygiene.  In  a  word,  there  should  always 
be  complete  harmony  upon  this  ])()int  between  all  the 
powers,  and  unity  of  views  and  of  action,  the  enemy  being 
the  same  for  everybody. 

The  case  must  also  be  provided  for  when  posts  without 
surgeons,  or  isolated  columns,  may  have"  to  resort  to  disinfec- 
tion, and  that  upon  their  ow-n  initiative,  in  the  event  of 
epidemic  danger,  or  of  a  contagious  or  suspected  case,  or 
upon  the  receipt  of  orders  emanating  from  the  council  of 
hygiene  and  transmitted  direct.  It  is  also  necessary  that 
the  post  commander  should  jiossess  a  short,  detailed,  and 
very  clear  manual  of  instructions,  indicating  the  manner  of 
using  the  apparatus  and  substances  at  his  disposition.  The 
following  is  an  outline  of  such  instructions: 

Disinfection  of  Premises. — A  solution  of  r)il:10()(l  of  sul- 
phate of  (•<)])per  (blue  copperas)  is  an  excellent  disinfectant 
foi-  sinks,  Avatei-conduits,  and  water-closets.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc.  In  default  of  these 
substances,  chloride  of  lime,  commonly  called  chlorine, 
employed  under  the  form  of  a  thick  milk,  is  very  good,  but 
inferior  to  the  preceding  on  account  of  its  odor  and  its  in- 
feriority as  a  germicide.  If  suli)hur  is  available  (either  the 
riowers  of  snliihur  or,  better  still,  roll-sulphur),  it  may  be 
very  suitably  used  foi-  disinfection,  not  in  open  jdaces,  but  in 
bed-rooms,  doi  luitories  of  the  men,  or  wards  of  a  hosi)ital.  It 
may  l)e  said,  however,  that  this  opi^ation  is  n(»t  always  easy 
in  the  colonies  on  account  of  the  numerous  openings,  and  the 
fact  is  regrettable,  because  the  vapor  of  the  sulplnii-  peiinits 
the  attainment,  at  a  single  blow,  of  the  sanitation  of  places 
and  the  disinfection  of  clothing  and  bedding,  which  can  be 
s]iiea(l  out  or  otlierw  ise  suitably  dis])osed.     The  mattresses 


Tljltjieix'  of  {he  Soldier  in  fhe  Tropics.  115 

can  nlso  be  disiiifec-ted  in  this  niiumer,  at  least  on  the  sur- 
face, for  they  are  to<>  thi<-k  to  he  completely  penetrated  by 
the  sulphurous  vajjor. 

After  having-  found  the  cubiral  contents  of  the  room, 
closed  the  openings  and  seams,  opened  the  furniture,  spread 
out  the  hanginj^s  and  all  the  objects  to  be  disinfected,  the 
sulphur,  at  the  rate  of  40  grams  \)ev  cubic  meter,  is  placed  on 
common  plates  and  s])rink](Ml  with  a  little  alcohol;  it  is  then 
set  on  tire,  and  one  r(4ires  through  a  door  left  free.  This  is 
immediately  closed  and  all  the  joints  stoi)ped  up  on  the  out- 
side, in  case  the  sulphurous  vai)or  is  seen  to  tilter  through. 
A  good  precaution  to  take  at  the  outset  consists  in  sprink- 
ling the  floor  and  walls  of  the  room  to  be  disinfected,  which 
favors  the  development  and  action  of  the  sulphurous  acid. 
The  room  remains  closed  at  least  twenty-four  hours;  it  is 
then  opened,  washed,  dried,  and  all  the  objects  it  contains 
are  aired. 

Another  excellent  means  of  disinfecting  contaminated 
rooms  is  to  wash  the  floors  and  w^alls  with  a  large  sponge 
saturated  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury 
of  1:1000.  After  this  washing,  they  are  allowed  to  dry,  and 
are  then  repainted  and  whitewashed.  This  disinfection 
ought  to  be  carried  into  all  the  angles  and  crevices,  without 
leaving  a  nook  not  penetrated  by  the  liipiid.  It  should  pre- 
cede all  sweeping  and  cleaning.  For  painted  surfaces  it 
might  be  followed  by  a  washing  with  ])otash,  and  even  by 
scraping. 

The  atomizers  long  used  for  this  ])urpose  had  i)erhaps 
the  advantage  of  spreading  the  liquids  more  uniformly;  but 
it  has  been  observed  that  they  do  not  cause  a  sufflcient  pene- 
tration of  the  surfaces,  at  least  unless  they  are  allowed  to 
play  for  a  long  time  on  the  same  spot. 

Those  who  are  charged  with  these  operations  should 


116  Hi/fiir)i('  of  the  ISoldier  in  the  Tropics. 

remembei 'that  they  are  liaiHlliii^-  deadly  poisons  and  should 
be  careful  not  to  carry  their  hands  to  the  mouth;  when  all  is 
finished,  they  ou<iht  to  wash  very  carefully  in  warm  water 
and  with  soap. 

Disinfection  of  Cloth  In;/. — In  the  large  centers,  the 
(Jeneste-Herscher  or  N'aillard  apparatus  or  steepinji-vats 
may  be  used.  The  important  thinji  is  to  submit  the  objects 
to  the  action  of  vapor  under  pressure,  at  110  to  120  dej>rees. 
In  the  small  places,  a  suitable  apjtaratus  can  be  constructed 
at  very  little  expense,  in  a  manner  described  by  Doctor 
Richard,  a  chief  sur<ie(»n  in  the  Army.  A  boiler  or  a  pot  is 
taken  and  covered  very  exactly  with  a  cask  without  heads, 
the  upper  orifice  only  bein*i  provided  with  a  cover  pierced 
with  two  holes,  one  receiving  a  thermometer  and  the  other 
permitting-  the  escape  of  the  vapor.  A  tire  is  lighted  under 
the  boiler;  when  the  thermometer  marks  100  degrees,  one 
waits  an  hour,  and  then  removes  the  clothes,  hung  upon  rods 
for  disinfection.  Tlu-  temperature  rises  to  lO."!  and  105  de- 
grees in  the  thickness  of  the  textures  placed  in  the  vapor 
bath;  this  results  in  a  satisfactory  puritication. 

Attention  is  also  called  to  even  a  nH)re  simple  method  of 
disinfecting  linen.  This  disinfection  must  be  made,  be  it 
understood,  before  washing,  else  it  would  be  useless;  indeed, 
those  called  upon  to  wash  it  would  be  ex]»osed  to  the  great- 
est danger,  as  has  ofttMi  been  pi-(»ved.  The  lintMi  is  thrown 
into  i>ails  tilled  with  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury  of 
2:1000.  It  is  allowed  to  icmain  there  twenty-four  hours,  and 
is  then  j)Ut  in  boiling  water  to  remove  the  bichhuide  of 
mercury. 

The  bichl(»ride  solution  is  haiinless  to  clothing,  hang- 
ings, and  objects  of  e(|uipment;  this  is  not  the  cast\  however, 
with  boiling  watei-.  Objects  susceptible  to  iujui-y  should 
not,   then,   be   boiled,    but   oidy    the   linen.       Moreover,    the 


Hi/(/iene  of  the  Soldier  in  flic  'rroi)ics. 


117 


objec-ts  which  would  he  iiijnied  by  boiling  are  jjjeiieiallv 
imu'h  less  contaminated.  It  will  snttice  to  leave  them  for  an 
hour  or  two  in  the  solution  and  then  rinse  them  with  soft, 
cold  water. 

The  wool  of  mattresses  is  likewise  susceptible  to  injury; 
it  should  be  disinfected  in  an  ordinary  or  improvised  stove  by 
the  use  ol  steam. 

All  persons  who  have  ai)])roached  the  siclv.  whether  acci- 
dentally or  in  a  continuous  manner,  should  disinfect  their 
clothing  before  resuming-  ordinary  life. 

The  (piestion  often  arises  as  to  what  objects  it  is  possi- 
ble to  disinfect  and  what  it  is  ])rudent  to  destroy.  After  a 
slight  epidemic  of  cliolera  on  board,  one  of  us  proceeded  in 
a  manner  which  may  serve  as  a  guide.  All  that  had  been  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  jiatient  and  was  manifestly  con- 
taminated by  ejections  or  sweat  was  destroyed;  all  tliat  was 
not  so  polluted  was  disinfected.  By  acting  thus,  we  believ(^ 
unnecessary  destruction  can  be  avoided  without  sacrificing 
the  rigorous  conditions  of  hygienic  requirements. 

Disinfection  of  Objects  and  Utensils  Used  hy  the  Sick. — The 
glasses,  plates,  cups,  canteens,  forks,  and  all  articles  which 
have  served  the  sick,  should  be  washed  in  a  solution  of  sul 
phate  of  copper  and  then  placed  in  boiling  water. 

Disinfection  of  Ejections. — The  alvine  discharges  and  the 
vomitings  should  be  collected  in  porcelain  receptacles  at  the 
bottom  of  which  is  left  a  disinfecting  solution;  enough  solu- 
tion will  be  added  to  cover  them  comi)letely.  They  should 
never  be  thiown  into  the  latrines,  nor  into  rivers,  but  into 
holes  dug  for  the  purpose.  There  they  should  be  immedi- 
ately covered  with  lime,  charcoal,  and  earth. 

Disinfection  of  Cadavers. — In  case  of  death,  the  cadaver 
should  be  rajiidly  and  thoroughly  washed  with  a  bichloride 
solution,  and  then  envelojx  d  in  a  shroud  saturated  with  the 


118  IIt/(/ici)C  of  the  ^Sohlier  in  the  Tropics. 

same  solution.  The  sawdust  from  the  bier,  with  charcoal 
added,  should  likewise  he  thoroughly  saturated  with  the 
same  solution. 

Prophi/tactic  Disinfection  of  PersonneJ  and  Materiel. — Those 
who  are  called  upon  to  attend  the  sick  should  be  chosen  from 
among  the  most  courageous  and  most  intelligent.  If  it  is  a 
question  of  typhoid  fever  or  of  variola,  men  will  be  chosen  in 
preference  who  have  had  these  diseases. 

The  hygienic  instructions  ought  to  be  explained  and 
rigorously  carried  out.  As  for  those  who  are  necessarily 
brought  into  contact  with  the  patient,  they  should  be 
extremely  careful  in  regard  to  cleanliness,  above  all  avoid- 
ing carrying  the  hands  to  the  mouth;  they  should  wash  often, 
with  the  bichloride  solution  or  with  suljihate  of  co])]iei-,  noi 
only  the  hands,  but  also  the  face.  Soldiers  employed  on  this 
service  should  have  no  communication  with  their  comrades, 
still  less  with  those  outside.  They  should  receive  special 
food  and  supplementary  rations. 

The  clothing  of  the  attendants  should  receive  the  same 
disinfection  as  that  worn  by  the  })atients.  "* 

The  litters,  vehicles,  and  boats  should  be  disinfected  in 
accordance  with  their  character;  for  that  purpose  a  special 
atomizer  may  be  used  with  advantage. 

SANITATION    OF    LOCALITIES. 

Tlie  sanitation  of  localities — and.  we  would  willingl.v 
add,  of  ]>opulations — is  a  necessaiy  precaution.  It  will  serve 
to  rendej-  the  invasion  and  extension  of  diseases,  whatever 
their  nature,  less  frecpn-nt  and  less  formidable. 

It  is  known  in  I']uro|»e.  especially  in  England,  that  a 
<-<)nlagious  disease  has  less  chance  of  gaining  a  foothold, 
when  the  country  is  refraclon',  or  is,  as  is  said  in  p]ngiand 
with  reference  t(i. cliolera,  clidlcrd-proof. 

The  most  h\gienic  towns  are  those  which  have  an  ii-re- 


Ifi/fliriic  of  the  Soldier  in  iho  Tropics.  119 

pi'oaehable  potable  water,  a.  system  of  diainaj;e  and  cleauiug 
to  prevent  the  soil  from  being  polluted;  those  where  sewers 
are  kept  in  good  order  and  the  lodgings  and  sales  of  drinks 
supervised;  where  vaccination  is  prescribed  and  the  exam- 
ination of  public  women  is  regularly  made;  those,  in  short, 
wiiirli  have  abattoirs  well  managed  and  well  located,  suit- 
aide  hospitals,  suftii-ient  means  of  disinfection,  and  special 
vehicles  for  those  who  are  sick  with  contagious  diseases.  In 
such  towns,  hygienically  constructed  and  hygienically  gov- 
erned, the  mortality  diminishes  year  by  year. 

In  the  colonies,  where  institutions  and  customs  of  this 
kind  are  more  nt^cessary  than  elsewhere,  everyone  knows 
what  really  exists  and  divines  what  ought  to  be  done.  With 
the  exception  of  Saigon  and  a  few  new  centers  in  Tong-King. 
most  of  our  colonial  towns  are  regular  sewers,  where  care 
for  hj'giene  is  a  thing  unknown.  The  local  administration 
is  not  stimulated  by  the  fear  of  seeing  the  garrisons  sup- 
pressed, and  it  often  opi)oses  a  great  force  of  inertia  to  the 
just  demands  of  military  authority. 

The  council  of  hygiene  is  never  consulted  except  upon 
the  approach  of  an  epidemic,  although  all  (juestions  concern- 
ing the  health  of  the  troops  and  inhabitants  should  be  regu- 
larly submitted  to  it.  Every  vexatious  thing  that  happens 
in  the  colonies  is  charged  to  the  soldier,  and  the  question  of 
what  diseases  are  given  him  is  never  raised.  If  the  towns 
of  the  littoral  weie  to  be  evacuated  and  the  troops  placed  in 
the  health  cities,  upon  the  heights,  many  of  tln^se  inconven- 
iencies  would  be  avoided.  The  municipalities  themselves 
would  understand  what  they  have  to  do  in  the  way  of  quar- 
tering the  troops,  and  what  would  be  necessary  to  keep  the 
ones  remaining  with  them.  Tlu^  conditions  of  living  and  of 
general  health  would  be  more  satisfactory  for  all,  and  the 
measures  of  edileship  and  of  urban  hygiene  would  benefit 
the  whole  poj»ulation. 


120  ]I //(/ii'iie  of  lite  ^oldti'f  in  Ihe  Tro/jics. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Special  Measures  for  Expeditions. 

When  an  exjiedition  is  undertaken  in  a  coniiti  y  beyond 
the  seas,  it  is  necessary  to  be  informed  of  all  the  difticnlties 
to  be  overeonie.  In  considering  the  climatic  and  telluric 
dang^ers,  a  <»eneral  formula  Avill  not  suffice;  even  in  the  sann^ 
latitudes,  the  hot  countries  ar*^  subject  to  vaiious  conditions 
and  influences,  and  the  means  of  })reservation  are  different. 

San  Domingo  and  Mexico  awaken  thoughts  of  yellow 
fever,  and  the  Euro})ean  about  to  be  exposed  there  would  be 
guilty  if  lie  di<l  not  remember,  from  the  very  flist.  to  provide 
against  its  attack. 

In  CcK-hin-China  and  Tong  King  are  found  the  germs  of 
dysentery,  diarrhea,  and  choleia;  nn^asures  should  therefore 
be  taken,  at  the  time  of  an  exjMMlilion,  to  avoid  these  intes- 
tinal diseases. 

Senegal,  Dahomey,  and  Madagascar  are  the  homes  of 
paludism,  and  it  is  ]>rincii»a]]y  against  malaria  that  ])rotec- 
tion  is  needed. 

Tile  judicious  apjtlication  (»f  scientific  information  ui»on 
the  distiibutioii  of  diseases  in  the  world  is  caj)abl(\  in  itself 
alone,  of  averting  great  disasters.  The  French  exjM'dition 
to  San  Domingo,  at  the  beginning  of  this  century,  might 
have  had  a  ditfei-eiit  ending  from  that  which  history  i-ecords, 
if  the  conditions  of  the  genesis  and  ])i(>pagat  ion  of  yellow 
fever  had  been  bettei-  known.  Our  exjiedition  to  Mexico,  so 
murderf>us  in  the  beginning,  would  have  been  much  more  so 
if  it  had  not  been  remembered  (hat  yellow  fever  ne\t'i-  quits 
the  littoral  to  advance  into  th<'  inteiim-.  What  would  have 
ha])pened  without  the  Convention  of  Soledad.  which  permit- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  (he  Tropics.  121 

ted  the  nniiy  to  leave  the  hot  lands  for  a  less  dangerous 
zone? 

Every  expedition  in  the  hot  eonntries,  whether  it  be 
within  the  limits  of  one  of  our  possessions  or  upon  foreign 
shores,  should  be  wisely  and  ])rudently  studied  before  being 
decided  upon  and  undertaken. 

§  I.      Colonidi  tJ.rpedifions. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  colonial  expeditions:  the  tirst 
are  local  in  nature,  constituting  a  condition  of  canijiaign  for 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  local  garrison,  whether  it  concerns 
the  suppression  of  a  rebellion  or  the  extension  of  our  in- 
fluence over  the  neighboring  countries;  the  others  are  those 
great  expeditions  decreed  by  the  (Tovernnient  with  a  view  to 
oi>erating  in  the  Tropics,  or  in  a  region  in  order  to  eon- 
(juer  it. 

In  the  tirst  case,  all  ought  to  be  arranged  in  advance; 
the  colony  in  mobilizing  its  military  forces,  should  have  a 
well-determined  ])lan  providing  for  all  necessities. 

In  the  case  of  a  distant  expedition,  a  cohmial  expedition 
proper,  the  first  care,  after  the  operation  is  decided  u])on.  is 
to  choose  the  chief  and  to  judiciously  constitute  the  head  of 
that  complex  organism,  an  expeditionary  cor]>s. 

In  the  tirst  place,  the  chief  of  the  expedition  ought  to  be 
chosen,  without  regard  to  any  irrelevant  prejudice,  from 
among  those  best  qualified  by  reason  of  their  antecedents 
and  individual  service. 

To  this  chief  should  bt^  added  three  assistants:  a  chief 
of  staff,  an  olticer  of  the  administrative  service  or  commis- 
sary, and  a  surgeon. 

Upon  this  body,  constituted  as  a  su])erior  staff,  is  to  fall, 
thenceforth,  the  })reparation  of  all  the  details  of  the  expedi- 
tion, each  member  being  more  especially  charged  with  the 
(piestions  relative  tc  his  own  de]»artment. 


122  Ilm/iciir  of  llio  Soldier  in  the  Tro})ics. 

It  is  indispensable  for  this  staff  to  have  a  sufficient 
knowledge  of  the  countiy  where  the  operations  are  to  take 
place;  otherwise,  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  proper  ar- 
rangements for  quartering,  camping,  subsisting,  clothing. 
and  eipiipping  the  troops,  and  would  be  difficult  to  prepare 
for  supplies  and  transports. 

In  order  to  attend  to  the  smallest  details  of  organiza- 
tion, to  receive  the  troops  upon  their  arrival  from  Europe, 
and  to  superintend  the  arrangements  ]»relimina.ry  to  active 
operations,  the  connuander-in-chief  should  be  one  of  the 
first  to  arrive  at  the  base  of  operations. 

The  English,  whose  practical  genius  we  cannot  help 
admiring  when  it  is  a  (luestion  of  organizing  a  colonial  ex- 
pedition, have  taught  us  valuable  lessons.  After  many  re- 
verses sustained  at  the  end  of  the  last  and  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  due  to  a  disdain  of  hygiene  and  cli- 
matology, our  neighbors  have  luotited  by  tlu^  lessons  of 
experience;  it  is  known  how  they  have  succeeded. 

It  is  well  to  be  inspired  with  the  general  spirit  which 
characterized  one  of  their  most  fortunate  expeditions,  both 
from  a  military  and  sanitary  point  of  view. 

The  commander-in-chief  arrived  at  the  base  of  opera 
tions  more  than  a  month  before  the  ex]ieditionary  corps, 
accompanied  by  a.  technical  ]irrsoiiiicL  including  a  large 
numl»er  of  surgeons.  He  made  sure  of  the  application  of  all 
the  necessary  measures  to  ]»i-eserve  the  tr(M)]>s  from  variola 
and  yellow  fever,  lie  also  had  a  ship  fitted  uj*  to  serve  as  a 
floating  hospital  and  |>rescribed  a  system  to  be  t'ollowed  in 
removing  the  sick. 

The  ti-oo]»s  were  to  airixc  in  the  good  season,  with  a 
uniform  ai»piopriate  t(»  the  torrid  clinnite:  a  shoit  and  roomy 
tunic  of  llannel  or  of  gray  serge,  with  long  side  pockets; 
trousers  of  the  same  nuiterial,  closed  to  the  leg  by  leggings 


Hyqienc  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  123 

of  browu  holland;  and  a  light  heluiet.  Each  man  carried,  in 
addition,  two  shirts,  a  flannel  band,  a  waterproof,  a  small 
pocket  filter,  and  an  air  Alter,  intended  to  be  placed  before 
the  month  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  miasma. 

Moreover,  each  soldier  was  in  possession  of  a  clearly 
worded  hygienic  manual  relating  to  the  personal  hygiene  of 
the  soldier.  Numerous  bearers  had  been  enrolled  for  the 
service  of  the  columns,  and  the  route  to  be  followed  was 
marked  by  halting-places  20  kilometers  apart.  At  each  of 
these  places  was  found  a  camp  capable  of  sheltering  a  thou- 
sand men  and  composed  of  large  huts  with  circular  camp- 
beds,  upon  which  50  sleepers  could  stretch  themselves  out 
comfortably.  Each  of  these  halting-places  included  also  a 
special  hut  for  the  officers,  store-houses,  a  field  hospital, 
kitchens,  a  water  supply,  and  a  large  filter. 

This  campaign,  so  skillfully  prepared,  was  that  of 
Ashantee.  It  is  a  custom  to  cite  it  as  a  model,  but  it  is  not 
alone.  Begun  in  January,  1874,  it  was  finished  in  March, 
and  on  the  23d  of  that  month  the  European  regiments  again 
took  the  route  to  England. 

General  Wolseley  had  operated  rapidly  and  with  a  sacri- 
fice of  only  65  lives  out  of  a  force  of  4000  men,  of  whom  2000 
were  Europeans. 

Later,  and  not  far  from  the  same  place,  the  administra- 
tion of  the  French  Marine  was  largely  inspired  by  these 
principles.  General  Dodds  attempted  all,  but  with  less  per- 
fect means  of  putting  them  in  practice.  He  was  also  at  a 
disadvantage  in  having  younger  troops.  Our  two  campaigns 
in  Dahomey  were  likewise  well  conducted,  especially  the 
second,  considering  the  desperate  resistance  of  the  enemy 
and  the  difficulties  of  every  nature  to  be  overcome. 

The  campaign  of  1895  in  Madagascar  was  disastrous, 
because  it  was  wished  to  make  innovations  by  attempting  a 


124  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

trial  of  coiitiiienlal  war  in  tlie  «jireat  Malajj;asy  Island!  Now, 
the  succ-ess  of  colonial  expeditious  will  lonji  be  subordinated, 
uot  so  much  to  skillful  dispositions  of  the  most  subtle 
strategy,  as  to  a  harmony  of  absolutely  special  natural  con- 
ditions and  to  the  observance  of  hygienic  measures. 

In  their  last  campaign  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  fiom  the 
14th  of  December,  1805,  to  the  :id  of  February,  ixm.  the 
English  also  obtained  surprising  j-esults.  From  the  re])ort 
of  the  surgeon.  Colonel  AV.  Tayhu-,  tln^t*  were  only  7  deaths 
out  of  J)!)!)  Europeans  jn-esent.  Adding  'A  deaths  which  oc- 
curred on  the  return  voyage,  there  results  a  total  of  10  deaths 
out  of  909  European  officers  and  soldiers,  or  1  per  cent.  Out 
of  375  natives,  there  was  only  a  single  death,  giving  0.25  ])er 
cent. 

It  is  true  that  this  campaign  was  very  short  and  not  at 
all  murderous,  which  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  com- 
]»arisous.  However,  it  is  im]»ossible  to  deny  the  excellence 
of  the  i-esult. 

>^  II.  Clioire  of  Troops. 
In  the  first  ])lace,  the  commander-in-chief  should  deter- 
mine the  strength  and  natur(^  of  the  effective  force  to  set  iu 
motion.  It  is  only  ui)on  this  information,  well  established, 
that  the  accessory  services  will  be  able  to  make  their 
ariangements  and  tix  the  limits  of  their  cooperation. 

To  avoid  the  risk  of  sending  too  small  a  force,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  err  in  the  o]»posite  dii-ection.  Those  who  had 
ex])erience  of  the  country  asked  themselves,  witli  reason, 
before  the  ^Madagascar  ex]tedition.  if  it  were  really  net-essary 
to  mobilize  15,000  men  to  tight  the  Hovas.  esjMMially  as  the 
difficulties  of  snj)j»]y  seemed  \vv\  great.  \\\\\\  4000  wtdl- 
clioscii  Fui-o])eans  and  SOOO  nativt^s  the  work  would  have 
been  easy. 

The  effective  force  to  be  em])loyed   liaving  ou(m^  b(^en 


11  i/i/ifiif'  iif  llie  Sohlicr  ill  fill'  Tropicfi.  125 

deteiinined,  it  is  necessary  to  designate  the  units  which  are 
to  make  up  tlie  exi>editi()nary  corps.  Experience  shows  that 
these  should  be  talcen  from  the  corps  which  ordinarily  go  to 
the  colonies,  and  accessorily  from  the  Algerian  corps.  The 
metropolitan  army  is  not  intended  for  <ampaigns  beyond  the 
seas;  the  soldiers  are  accustomed  to  the  garrisons  of  France 
and  are  not  at  all  prepared  for  colonial  expeditions;  special 
men  are  needed  for  this  pur^xise.  and  this  fact  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized. 

Choice  shouhl  then  be  made,  among  the  men  of  these 
special  c(trps,  of  those  who  are  exempt  from  the  least  defect, 
and  also  from  those  who  are  accustomed  to  colonial  life;  pro- 
vided there  be  among  the  latter  neither  old  i)aluda]  patients, 
(•{indidates  for  a  yellow  fever  attack,  nor  former  dysenteries, 
predisposed  to  diarrluea  and  congestion  of  the  liver,  nor 
those  subject  to  bronchial  affections,  probable  consump- 
tives, n<»r  those  ti-oublcd  with  rluMimatism.  The  medical 
examinati(»n  should  be  most  severe  and  conducted  by  a 
technical  commission,  and  not  by  a  single  surgeon. 

Men  who  are  too  young  ought  not  to  be  used  in  wars  in 
the  Tropics;  we  have  seen  the  enormous  mortality  of  soldiers 
from  10  to  1*.*>  years  of  age.  In  all  our  expeditions,  and  in  the 
English  expeditious  too,  the  same  fact  has  been  observed. 
If  in  Dahomey,  in  1892,  the  Foreign  Legion  had  only  35  per 
KKM)  invalidations,  while  the  infinilerir  tie  mariiii'  had  DO,  the 
tiotilla  SO,  the  artillery  74,  the  engineers  50,  etc.,  it  was  be- 
cause the  soldiers  of  the  Legion  are  older  and  in  consequence 
more  robust.  Moreover,  they  are  men  inured  to  all  fatigue, 
little  accessible  to  moral  depression,  and  apt  in  nmking  the 
best  of  the  most  precarious  resources.  The  nuijority  of  the 
soldiers  of  the  Marine,  on  the  contrary,  are  men  from  V.)  to 
23  years  old  who  have  never  served  in  the  colonies,  are 
depressed  at  the  first  attacks  of  paludism,  and   are  more 


126  Ilyijiene  of  Ihe  ^Soldier  in  the,  Tropics. 

accessible  to  discoiiiagemeiit.  Excellent  soldiers,  full  of 
courage  and  ardor,  they  lack  bottom,  because  thev  are  too 
joung,  because  their  constitutions  are  not  fully  developed, 
and — we  will  add  with  one  of  th(Mr  generals,  who  will  i>ardon 
us  for  expressing  his  opinion,  which  is  our  own  in  all  ])oints 
— because  their  military  instruction  has  often  been  too 
forward. 

The  camjiaign  of  Madagascar  has  proved  the  same  thing 
with  regard  to  troops  of  different  arms  and  varied  composi- 
tion. It  likewise  permitted  the  verification  of  a  fact  brought 
to  light  in  preceding  cam])aigns:  that  it  is  necessary,  to  the 
greatest  possible  extent,  to  prefer  native  trooi»s  to  white 
troops,  since  the  former  pay  a  tribute  to  torrid  climates 
three  or  four  times  less  costly  than  our  own. 

Thus  the  Algerian  tirailleurs  disembarked  KJOO  men  at 
Majunga.  One  battalion  of  this  force  was  with  General 
Metzinger  from  the  beginning.  They  brought  !)()()  l)efore 
Tananarivo;  the  men  of  the  Legion  were  equally  fortunate. 

The  200th  of  the  Line,  com]iosed  of  volunteers  from  20 
to  22  years  old,  and  for  the  most  part  less  than  a  year  with 
the  colors,  had  an  (Effective  strength  of  2700  men,  of  whom 
300  were  recruits;  it  was  possible  to  jueserve  until  the  end  of 
the  operations  only  1G3.  The  40th  Battalion  of  Chasseurs, 
formed  under  the  same  conditions,  did  not  arrive  Ix^fore  the 
capital  of  the  island  at  all,  and  out  of  700  men,  only  120 
returned  to  France.* 

There  is  one  consideration,  however,  which  should  not 
be  lost  sight  of  in  organizing  an  exjicdition :  it  is  the  necessity 
of  not  removing  native  soldiers  entirely  from  their  own  coun- 
try. The  idea  of  making  the  Annamites  serve  in  the  Soudan, 
or  the  Senegalese  in  Indo-China  or  Guiana,  if  it  were  ever 

*In  B('nin,  in  1890,  the  white  troops  lost  46  per  1000;  the  natives, 
only  19. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  127 

put  in  practice,  would  give  results  only  intiuitely  worse  than 
those  produced  by  the  use  of  white  troops  in  the  same 
countries. 

Recall  in  this  connection  the  susceiitibility  of  the  blacks 
to  cholera,  the  complete  unfamiliarity  of  the  Indo-(niinese 
races  with  yellow  fever,  etc.,  not  to  speak  of  the  discourage- 
ment which  would  take  possession  of  natives  transplanted 
in  a  climate  totally  strange  to  them. 

The  Creoles,  like  the  blacks,  could  render  us  excellent 
service  at  their  homes.  This  is  a  point  which  should  not  be 
disdained,  especially  at  the  time  of  an  expedition. 

Since  the  law  of  the  1st  of  August,  189.5,  relating  to 
military  service,  Reunion  can  furnish  every  year  a  contingent 
of  about  800  men.  That  is  the  worth  of  a  battalion,  and  of  a 
regiment  for  the  three  contingents  of  the  active  army.  The 
Marine  has  it  in  hand  to  take  2400  men  ready  to  be  levied  in 
Madagascar. 

The  battalion  of  volunteers  of  Reunion  was  recruited 
under  'the  worst  possible  conditions,  and  nevertheless  has 
shown  good  powers  of  resistance:  Out  of  an  effective 
strength  of  549  men,  officers  and  Europeans  not  included, 
the  proportion  of  sick  or  convalescents  withdrawn  wa«  28.-4 
per  cent,  and  the  proportion  of  deaths  did  not  exceed  3.09 
per  cent. 

This  recent  example  augurs  well  for  the  services  of  the 
young  Creoles  of  Reunion,  once  they  are  well  instructed  and 
organized. 

Doctor  Th^ron  has  remarked  that  the  nearer  the  con- 
script approached  the  white  race  in  color — and  with  stronger 
reason  the  white  Creole — the  more  cause  there  was  for  his 
exemption  from  service;  the  more  traces  of  African  blood 
there  were  in  the  conscript,  the  better  were  his  chances  of 
being  declared  physically  good.     From  this  it  would  appear 


128  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  lite  Tropics. 

that  the  effectives  fuiuished  by  Keniiion  should  iueliide  a 
very  small  pro[»c)iti()ii  of  white  Creoles,  and  that  the  colored 
Creoles  should  be  in  great  majority,  calling  by  this  name  both 
the  Creoles  of  the  centers  arid  also  those  with  little  trace  of 
white  blood  from  the  heights. 

The  European  element  is  an  indispensable  factor  in  the 
organization  of  the  natives.  It  sustains  the  creole  troops 
and  fni-nishes  on  the  l»attle-tield  that  old  (/iKird  which  decides 
the  victory.  This  reserve,  few  in  numbers,  ought  to  be  of 
proved  solidity,  a  veritable  plialanx.  seasoned  to  disease  as 
well  as  to  bullets;  it  ought  to  be  c<mi]iosed  of  the  flile,  chosen 
from  the  best  colonial  corps,  and  in  order  to  form  it  the 
authorities  should  not  recoil  from  any  sacrifice. 
>;  III.     Convoys  and  Siipplirs. 

The  (piestion  of  convoys  and  supplies,  which  enters  into 
the  preparation  of  every  well-planned  exi)edition,  has  always 
received  great  attention  from  the  chiefs  of  ex]»edition,  espe- 
cially in  the  hot  countries.  It  is  not  an  easy  thingvt(»  \yvo- 
vide  food  and  munitions  for  a  column  advancing  into  a  coun- 
try, sometimes  unknown,  and  wh(^re  there  are  neither  roads 
nor  paths;  it  is  still  more  ditticult  to  provide  for  the  trans- 
l)ort  of  the  sick,  who  must  be  taken  to  the  rear. 

It  is,  tirst  of  all,  necessary  that  the  nialfriet  sent  from 
Fiance  arrive  at  the  base  of  operations  at  the  i)roper  time, 
that  it  be  placed  in  the  shelter  of  suitable  store  houses,  and 
that  it  be  forwarded  to  the  troo])S  on  the  march  and  to  the 
detached  i»osts  all  along  the  lint^  of  operations. 

To  peit'orni  these  numerous  duties,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  transport  animals  ar.d  a  uuuibei-  of  native  coolies  pro- 
j.ortionate  to  the  etiective  condtataut  strength,  taking  into 
account  the  necessity  which  will  often  exist  of  having  the 
packs  of  tlu^  soldiers  carried  by  the  auxiliaries. 

If  the  supplies  can  be  forwarded  by  \v;itei  ways,  in  place 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  129 

of  euioUing'  oiilv  the  bt'aicris,  it  will  be  iiecessary  to  look  out 
for  boats,  pirogues,  aud  oarsuien  iu  sutticieut  uumber,  accoid- 
ing  to  the  quantity  of  stores  to  be  transported  and  the  length 
of  the  route. 

The  principle  is  to  never  transform  the  soldier,  espe- 
cially the  European  combatant,  into  a  coolie.  A  heavy  load 
should  not  be  imposed  upon  the  wliite  troops  in  the  Tropics, 
and  all  the  skill  of  the  general  should  be  directed  towards 
disposing  a  convoy  in  such  a  way  that  no  fatigue  for  thi' 
combatants  will  result  from  carrying  an  excessive  weight. 

The  Bearers. — It  is  necessary  to  have  a  sufficient  number 
of  bearers:  that  is  the  difficulty  of  every  colonial  expedition, 
and  it  was  on  account  of  deficiency  in  this  respect,  during 
the  Madagascar  campaign,  that  use  was  made  of  troops  for 
the  unloading  of  maifrlrl,  the  construction  of  roads,  and  the 
transport  of  food. 

Besides,  it  is  sufficient  to  see  the  care  taken  by  the  chiefs 
of  expedition  to  collect  armies  of  bearers  to  follow  their  col- 
umns of  operation.  They  are  necessary  impedimenta:  with 
out  bearers,  a  colonial  expedition  is  impossible. 

During  the  expedition  to  China,  in  ISOO,  the  English 
army  of  lO.OOO  men  had  a  convoy  of  2500  aninmls,  in  charge 
of  200  conductoi's,  assisted  by  ."'OO  coolies,  while  our  3000 
French  troops  had  only  1000  bearers  to  transport  all  their 
maierieJ.  A  little  later,  in  Cochin-China,  we  were  able  to 
organize  a  corps  of  1800  natives  charged  with  the  convoys. 

In  Abyssinia,  in  18(17,  the  English  had  more  than  0000 
auxiliaries  of  this  kind,  commanded  by  Europeans. 

For  their  convoys  on  the  expedition  against  the  Ashan- 
tees,  our  neighbors  made  use  not  only  of  men,  but  also  of  the 
women  (►f  the  A\'est  Coast,  long  accustomed  to  this  trade, 
which  they  carried  on  for  the  merchants  of  the  littoral.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  English  one  day  found  themselves  in  a  deli- 
9— — 


130  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

cate  sitnatioii  on  account  of  a  nionientaiy  defection  amou}; 
their  auxiliarief*,  and  no  one  knows  what  would  have  hap- 
pened but  for  the  energetic  and  intelligent  initiative  of  the 
corjis  conmunider:  General  AA'olseley  immediately  called  into 
requisition  the  native  soldiers  of  the  West  India  Regiment, 
and  for  fifteen  days  confided  to  them  the  functions  aban- 
doned by  the  negro  deserters.  The  expedition  suffered  no 
delay,  but  only  cost  a  little  more,  for  the  general  rightly 
believed  it  to  be  his  duty  under  such  circumstances  to  pay 
liberally  for  the  special  services  of  the  native  soldiers. 

In  Egypt,  in  1885,  the  English  collected  7000  Soudanese 
as  bearers;  and  they  i)laced  under  the  orders  of  a  major,  to 
fill  that  office  during  the  campaign  in  Zululand,  2000  natives, 
levied  upon  the  frontiers  of  Natal. 

The  Russians  in  their  campaigns  in  Central  Asia  have 
likewise  had  recourse  to  immense  convoys.  In  1880,  Skobe- 
leff  had  no  less  than  21,000  camels  at  his  disposition. 

Let  us  now  see  what  we  have  done  of  late  years: 

In  Upper  Senegal,  the  first  column  of  1880,  for  an  ettt^-t- 
ive  force  of  500  combatants,  had  no  less  than  50(1  native 
bearers. 

In  Tong-King,  the  organization  of  the  coips  of  coolies 
during  the  expedition  w^as  the  constant  care  of  our  generals, 
and  yet  our  men  were  very  often  much  more  buidencd  tlian 
was  suitable. 

General  Bouet  collected  500  bearers  befor<'  the  march 
ujion  Sontay;  (Jeneral  :Mill«»t.  more  than  r.OOO.  of  whom 
2000  accomi)anied  the  first  brigade  advancing  towards  liac- 
Ninh.  Each  grouj)  of  50  bearers  was  commanded  by  a  rai 
(Annamite  corporal). 

Before  advancing  u])on  Lang  Son.  General  Byu\v  dc 
risle  likewise  paid  s])eciMl  attention  to  the  organization  of 
a  large  convoy. 

Useful  Pncautiniis.—M'  tlie  ;iut liorit ies  ought  first  of  all 


lli/yiene  of  (he  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  131 

to  demand  of  the  coolies  !>utti<ieiit  stieiigtli  to  earry  a  load  of 
20  to  25  kilograms,  the  maximum  to  impose  ou  a  black,  the 
hygienist,  on  his  part,  has  the  duty  of  watching  over  the 
health  of  the  auxiliarit^s.  Tht'y  ought  to  be  healthy  and 
exempt  from  all  contagious  disease. 

If  they  have  not  been  vaccinated,  they  should  be  re- 
quired to  submit  to  the  preventive  inoculation,  in  view  of 
the  frequency  of  variola  in  certain  countries. 

The  personnel  of  the  convoy  is  the  mainspring  of  the 
expedition:  let  an  epidemic  attack  it.  and  the  combatants  in 
their  turn  will  soon  be  struck. 

If  the  coolies  fail,  what  would  l)e  done  regarding  sup- 
plies and  the  transportation  of  the  sick  and  wounded?  The 
general  will  not  always  be  able,  like  the  English  on  the 
African  coast,  to  utilize  black  troops  for  that  purpose,  and  in 
default  of  bearers,  the  expedition  might  be  gravely  com- 
promised. To  care  for  the  convoy  and  watch  over  the  well- 
being  of  those  connected  with  it  is  then  a  necessity  for  the 
chief  who  wishes  to  be  successful.  The  hipjiene  of  the  hearer  is 
the  heatth  of  the  soldier. 

As  for  the  mamier  in  which  the  coolies  carry  their  load, 
it  is  of  no  importance:  whether  upon  the  head  or  upon  the 
shoulders,  all  depends  on  the  country  and  the  customs  of  the 
natives. 

To  spare  the  bearers,  it  is  Avell  to  have  a  large  number  of 
animals.  In  the  expedition  of  Chitral,  in  the  north  of  India, 
the  English  had  ll,(iOO  camels  and  2(i,000  muh  s.  In  our  pos- 
sessions there  are  pack-mules  which  ought  to  give  the  best 
results,  unless  it  is  possible  to  use  water-ways. 

The  Convoijs  in  Madagascar. — By  the  avowal  of  the  Gov- 
ernment itself,  the  cause  of  all  oui-  troubles  in  Madagascar 
was  the  lack  of  bearers.  P^ven  at  a  late  hour,  there  were 
only  7000  coolies  and  0000  mules. 


132  Hygiene  of  (lie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Euiulliiient  should  have  been  made  at  the  outset  of 
10,(){)()  Kabvles,  5U00  Senegalese,  and  50UU  Sakalaves,  and 
they  should  have  been  brigaded  before  the  arrival  of  the 
troops.  It  was  one  preliminary  operation  of  the  highest 
importance,  and  of  which  the  examples  of  the  English  in 
Abyssinia  and  at  the-  Gold  Coast,  and  of  General  Dodds  in 
Dahomey,  should  have  made  us  think. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  idea  of  using  vehicles 
was  truly  unfortunate.  To  pull  a  vehicle  a  quadruped  is  nec- 
essary, and  in  order  that  it  may  travel  there  must  be  a  road, 
without  counting  the  drivers. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  a  mule  pulls  I'OO  kilograms 
in  a  vehicle  and  can  carry  only  100,  from  which  must  be 
deducted  the  food  of  itself  and  its  conductor,  or  10  kilo- 
grams. Now,  ()000  pack-mules  and  20,000  coolies,  collected 
in  advance,  would  have  been  able  to  transport  the  same  load 
as  0000  mules  in  harness;  they  would  have  iiermitted  an 
advance  to  be  made  without  waiting  for  reinforcements  of 
animals  and  drivers,  which  could  then  have  been  sent  from 
France  or  elsewhere  in  proportion  to  the  needs.  The  deadly 
stoppage  of  the  troops  at  Suberbievillc  would  have  been  con- 
siderably shortened,  and  the  road  intended  for  the  circula- 
tion of  the  vehicles  would  have  been  unnecessary. 

Moreover,  if  the  advice  of  Admiral  Bienainn''  had  been 
taken,  all  the  operations  of  transport  and  su]»])lies  could  have 
taken  place  by  the  river;  the  expedition  would  have  been 
uiore  j»roini)t.  uiore  decisive,  aud  much  less  murderous. 

This  is  truly  the  place  to  destroy  a  legend,  false  like 
most  legends,  about  the  rule  of  the  Marine  at  Madagascar. 
Maurice  Loir  has  ]>eifectly  denioustratcMl  thai  this  role  was 
quite  other  than  has  been  dej)ict( d. 

The  commandant  of  tlu'  naval  division  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  exjdaiued  the  measures  to  be  taken,  from  the  com- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  133 

mencenieiit  of  1895,  in  case  tlie  road  to  Tanaiiarivo,  by  way 
of  Majuuga,  should  be  adopted. 

This  route,  which  was  preferred  by  Coh)nel  de  Beyli*^, 
was  longer  than  that  from  Taraatave,  but  was  intinitely 
better  adai>ted  to  tlie  march  of  an  important  column,  and 
had,  besides,  a  precious  advantage:  that  of  ])ermitting  the 
utilization,  for  a  good  jjart  of  the  way,  of  the  great  river 
Betsiboka,  which,  emptying  into  the  sea  before  Majunga,  is 
navigable  for  ships  of  light  draught. 

In  his  report  of  the  30th  (^f  May,  18!)4,  the  commandant 
of  the  division  asked  for  the  naval  iiKilfricI  ap])ro]jriate  to 
this  navigation:  50  lighters,  12  tugs,  and  several  gunboats. 
Alluding  even  to  the  military  question,  he  recommended 
that  the  troops  be  sent  in  two  installments:  the  first,  of 
2500  men  (robust  and  seasoned,  formed  from  the  Foreign 
Legion  and  the  infanterie  de  marine)  to  arrive  in  March-A])ril; 
the  second,  the  main  body,  to  arrive  about  the  15tli  of  May — 
that  is  to  say,  at  the  height  of  the  dry  season,  a  favorable 
time  for  the  PX])edition.  ^>o  regulated,  the  troops  of  the  ad- 
vance guard  would  have  occupied,  from  April,  the  two  banks 
of  the  river,  in  a  location  near  the  sea;  they  would  have 
•driven  off  the  enemy,  thus  assuring  free  navigation  to  the 
gun-boats  and  tugs.  The  main  body,  ascending  the  river 
with  the  flotilla,  would  have  rapidly  crossed  the  low  regions 
of  the  island — that  is  to  say,  the  hot  lands  and  the  marshes. 
It  was  the  means  of  most  sui'el}'  avoiding,  without  too  luucli 
loss,  the  fever,  the  most  precious  ally  of  the  Hovas. 

In  order  to  properly  carry  out  this  programme  it  was 
necessary  to  know  thoroughly  the  character  of  the  Betsiboka. 
Some  time  before  the  expedition,  ^Iidshi])nmn  Compagnou, 
of  the  Primauguet,  passing  himself  off"  as  an  agent  of  the  min- 
ing comi)any  of  Suberbie,  was  sent  npon  a  steamer  of  that 
company,  and  took  bearings  and  soundings. 


134  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  "Tropics. 

In  the  interval,  aided  by  some  companies  of  infanterie  de 
marine  from  Diego-Snarez  and  Rennion,  Admiral  Bienaim^ 
was  snccessfnl  in  a  militaiy  occnpation  of  Tamatave,  the 
lltli  of  December,  1894,  and  of  Majnnjia,  tlie  KJth  of  Jan- 
uary, 1895.  These  two  ojierations  were  accom]»lished  with- 
out noise  and  without  serious  resistance,  which  led  the  com- 
mander-in-chief to  say  in  his  letter  to  the  Minister,  and  with 
an  accurate  perception  of  the  future:  "It  is  known  that  no 
serious  resistance  is  to  be  feared  and  that  all  efforts  should 
be  directed  to  the  organization  of  the  service  and  the  move- 
ment of  the  convoys." 

Majunga  once  chosen  as  the  place  of  disembarkment,  an 
apparatus  was  installed  upon  the  shore  for  distilling  sea 
water,  as  soft  water  is  rare  upon  the  margins  of  that  vast 
bay.  Then  the  entrance  channel  was  marked  with  buoys  to 
warn  all  ships  coming  there  for  the  first  time  of  the  difficul- 
ties of  making  land;  finally,  the  ^lalagasies  were  recruited 
to  serve  as  bearers  or  navvies — that  is  to  say.  as  auxiliaries 
of  the  Army  at  the  time  of  its  taking  the  field. 

Admiral  Bienaime  had  been  careful  to  inform  the  Min- 
ister that  the  recruitment  of  the  Malagasies  would  be  very 
difficult  and  insufficient.  In  default  of  Chinese,  always 
cludera  suspects,  he  would  have  to  resort  to  the  blacks  of  the 
African  coast. 

The  lack  of  coolies  imi>osed  a  great  excess  of  burdens  on 
the  Marine;  but,  umler  the  impulsion  of  its  chief,  it -was  able 
to  accomplish  i»rodigies  in  the  unloading  of  the  ships  and 
transports  in  the  rivei-.  With  the  aid  of  a  company  of  infan- 
terie de  marine,  iNIaroway  was  seized  on  the  2d  of  May,  1895, 
a  new  proof  that  the  op<'rations  could  have  been  conducted 

by  the  river. 

^   I\'.      Saiiilari/  Scrrire. 

A  sanitary  organization  i)re])ared  for  a  continental  war 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropks.  135 

cauuot  be  used  in  a  colonial  campaign  without  modification. 
In  this  connection,  the  Madagascar  campaign  is  instructive. 

The  theory  of  the  field  hospital  is  based  on  European 
war:  it  advances  at  the  same  time  as  the  troops  and  a  dis- 
tance determined  beforehand;  it  can  be  installed  in  villages 
and  houses  reciuisitioned;  quarters  and  beds  are  found  there 
and  also  indispensable  accessories,  such  as  kitchens  and 
laundries;  to  begin  operations,  it  is  only  necessary  to  open 
the  bottle-cases  and  paniers. 

These  dispositions  are  not  applicable  in  the  colonies, 
where  nothing  is  provided,  as  a  rule.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  take  up  all  the  questions  relative  to  the  organization 
of  the  health  service:  personnel,  materiel,  transport  of  the  sick, 
locati(»n  of  the  hospitals,  and  evacuation. 

PERSONNEL. 

The  chief  of  the  health  service  of  the  expeditionary 
corps  should  be  of  high  rank,  should  have  local  experience, 
and  should  possess  the  absolute  confidence  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  expedition. 

The  surgeons  should  be  chosen  among  those  who  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  experience  in  colonial  expedi 
tions.     They  should  be  in  great  number. 

The  regiments  should  have  their  complete  medical 
effective:  (»  surgeons  to  the  regiment,  2  to  the  battalion,  and 
this  number  shouJd  be  increased  by  2  as  substitutes,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  8. 

The  sanitary  organizations  should  likewise  have  their 
complete  effective,  increased  one-third  to  fill  unforeseen 
vacancies  caused  by  the  establishment  of  posts  along  the 
line  of  supplies. 

We  have  always  been  too  parsimonious.  In  Dahomey, 
in  1892,  the  sanitary  personnel  was  too  small.  For  1432 
European  and  2170  native  combatants,  we  had  only  18  snr- 


13()  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

geoiis:  9  with  tbe  column,  5  in  the  iiosjutals  of  Porto-Novo 
and  Kotonou,  4  on  the  Myflio  and  the  convoy  ships.  This 
number  was  too  small;  with  the  column,  and  in  the  hos- 
pitals especially,  it  should  have  been  doubled.  The  deft 
ciency  would  have  been  more  noticeabh^  if  the  expedition 
had  not  been  so  successful. 

In  Madagascar,  in  1805,  the  number  of  sur^jeons  was 
much  too  small.  The  trooi)S  were  iirovided  with  '1  surgeons 
to  a  battalion,  or  24  for  the  European  regiments.  The  sani- 
tary organizations  were  supplied  with  a  variable  number  of 
surgeons  and  }>harmacists,  according  to  their  imi>ortance. 
The  sanitarium  was  sufficiently  supi)lied,  but  the  hospital  of 
evacuation  and  the  field  hos]>itals  were  lacking  in  personnel. 

If  we  had  adopted  Ihe  ](ro])ortion  of  surgeons  sent  to  the 
Gold  Coast  by  the  English  in  IST:^,  there  would  have  been 
more  than  :{()()  sent  to  ^Madagascar.  It  was  thought  suffi- 
cient to  send  80  for  the  15,0(10  to  16,000  combatants,  to  whicli 
number  must  be  added  7000  auxiliaries.  The  i)roportion 
was  almost  identical  with  that  in  Dahomey;  it  was  very 
insuflicient. 

The  pharnuicists  are  useful  in  the  sanitary  organiza- 
tions and  should  not  be  forgotten. 

There  should  be  a  sufficient  number  of  veterinarians  to 
give  the  necessary  care  to  the  animals  of  the  convoy;  20 
were  sent  to  Madagascar  and  they  were  efficient  in  caring  for 
the  0000  mules.  It  was  anxiously  asked  if  the  mules  could 
live  in  Madagasrar;  they  did  very  well,  because  they  were 
admirably  cared  for. 

The  nurses  should  be  numerous,  als).  In  Dahomey,  out- 
side of  the  regimental  nurses  and  auxiliaries,  there  were  only 
20  Europeans  and  (J  natives.  In  :Madagascar  a  greater  num- 
ber had  been  provided;  1  nurse  had  been  sent  for  5  hospital 
beds,  and  as  the  number  of  beds  for  the  various  organiza- 
tions was  ;'.000,  the  total  number  of  nurses  was  000. 


Hygiene  of  (lie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  137 

Nevertheless  they  were  iiisiilti<-ieiit,  since  nurses  fall 
sick  as  well  as  soldiers.  Three  months  after  the  arrival,  it 
was  not  rare  to  find  a  sanitary  organization  practically  un- 
provided with  nurses.  In  Auoust,  at  the  hospital  of  Anka- 
hoka,  there  were  only  4  well  nurses  for  1000  sick;  at  Suber- 
bieville,  there  were  only  ('►  nurses  for  000  sick. 

It  must  also  be  said  that  in  the  French  Army  we  have  no 
regular  corps  of  nurses,  as  in  the  German,  where  special 
corps  of  them  exist.  Our  nurses  are  scarcely  initiated  in 
hospital  life  before  they  return  home.  The  colonial  army, 
when  it  is  formed,  should  possess  professional  nurses,  like 
the  Marine.     This  is  not  only  necessary,  it  is  indispensable. 

MATERIEL. 

In  a  colonial  expedition,  such  an  incumbrance  as  the 
complicated  equipage  which  follows  an  army  corps  in  Eu- 
rope is  not  to  be  thought  of:  surgical  and  administrative 
wagons,  wagons  of  supply  and  reserve,  tents  and  barracks. 

It  is  necessary,  however,  to  transport  dressing  mate- 
rials, medicines,  food  for  the  sick,  and  shelters  or  the  mate- 
rials to  construct  them;  it  will  also  be  necessary  to  provide 
for  the  transport  of  the  sick. 

The  expeditionary  corps  of  Madagascar  had  4  cam- 
paign hospitals,  of  250  beds  each ;  1  hospital  of  evacuation, 
of  500  beds;  2  flying  field  hospitals  and  18  field  hospital 
infirmaries.     There  was  also  a  sanitarium  of  500  beds. 

The  field  hospitals  were  provided  with  a  considerable 
number  of  dressing  materials,  hand-litters,  liorse-litters,  and 
cacolets. 

The  materiel  of  the  unit  of  the  sanitary  organizations — 
the  battalion  service^included  2  Lefebvre  wagons;  11  pack- 
mules;  10  paniers  of  supplies,  2  medical,  2  operating,  2  of 
dressings  and  quinine;  10  field-hospital  bags;  12  litters,  with 
hoods;  and  1  conical  tent. 


138  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Each  body  was  to  be  followed  in  its  opeiatious  bv  a  field 
hospital  comprising  12  Lefebvie  wagons,  8  pack-mules,  10 
mules  for  cacolets,  2  mules  for  litters,  and  a  suitable  number 
of  coolies. 

A  road  had  been  supposed  to  exist;  the  regulation 
wagons  for  a  tield  hospital  had  been  replaced  by  the  Le- 
febre;  the  horse-litters  and  cacolets  reserved  f<u'  mountain 
warfare  were  provided;  and  a  great  number  of  bearers  was 
counted  on;  tinally,  the  jirovisions  for  the  wounded  were  cal- 
culated as  in  p:uroi»ean  war;  but  the  medicines,  except  the 
quinine,  were  far  from  being  sufficient. 

The  four  campaign  hospitals  were  each  provided  with 
72  wagons,  mules,  supplies  of  all  kinds,  tents  and  barracks 
in  sections. 

In  short,  the  supplies  were  abundant,  and  yet  the  cam- 
paign was  bad,  because  there  was  a  defective  organization. 

In  the  colonies  the  sick  should  not  be  kept  on  the  spot, 
especially  in  a  new  country;  the  evacuation  should  be 
prompt,  and  what  is  needed  for  the  first  aid  is  a  simple  sys- 
tem of  supply,  divided  into  fractions,  manageable,  and  eas- 
ily transported. 

As  to  the  medical  iiuttcriel.  the  heavy  bottle-cases  should 
be  replaced  by  wicker  paniers,  closed  by  strong  straps,  and 
covered  with  water-proof.  Each  panier  has  rope  handles, 
through  which  are  passed  the  bamboos  of  the  coolie  bearers. 
Such  is  the  improvised  panier  which  of  late  years  has  served 
our  colleagues  in  Dahomey  and  Indo-rhina. 

Paniers  of  this  kind  arc  regulation  in  the  Department  of 
War,  and  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  a  special  model,  well 
provided  with  com|»artnients,  adopted  for  all  the  colonial 
battalions  and  icgiments. 

These  paniers  could  be  stored  in  each  im])ortant  post, 
and  at  thi'  moment  of  nuibili7,ati(ui  every  surgeon  could  take 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  139 

the  field  with  his  sanitary  materiel.  This  materiel  should  be 
prepared  in  advance  and  kept  complete,  or  completed  at  the 
last  moment  in  accordance  with  any  special  requirements. 
There  should  be  no  necessity  of  hastily  drawing  from  bottle- 
cases  or  from  the  pharmacy.  Paniers  prepared  in  such  a 
manner  are  sure  to  be  badly  composed. 

The  pharmaceutical  materiel  shouhl  be  appropriate  to 
the  uses  and  necessities  of  the  locality.  It  is  not  advisable 
in  Tong-King,  for  example,  to  allow  a  column  to  start  out 
without  a  sufficient  supply  of  laudanum,  (luinine,  and  root 
of  ipecac,  for  those  attacked  by  diarrh<pa,  dysentery,  or 
other  pernicious  disease. 

The  composition  and  number  of  paniers  to  distribute  to 
each  unit  and  to  the  sanitary  (trganizations  leaying  Europe 
4>n  an  expedition  should  be  studied  and  regulated  in  ad- 
vance, and  in  a  special  manner  for  each  expedition.  To 
attain  this  end,  the  special  nature  of  the  expedition,  its  diffi- 
culties, and  its  duration  must  be  known. 

Doctor  Fruitet  is  of  the  ojunion  that  the  regimental  sup- 
plies of  Europe  can  be  utilized  with  certain  modifications: 

1.  Suppress  the  regimental  medical  carriage. 

2.  Utilize  only  the  collection  of  four  j)aniers. 

?>.  Suppress  the  two  reserve  paniers  of  dressings  and 
replace  them  by  medicine  paniers. 

The  colonial  and  post  store-houses  should  contain  mobil- 
ization materiel;  each  of  our  colonies  should  be  i)royided 
with  a  materiel  suited  to  its  needs. 

If  a  great  expedition  were  about  to  take  place,  it  would 
only  be  necessary  to  call  attention,  in  France,  to  the  models 
and  systems  already  in  use  in  the  colony,  in  order  to  prepare, 
in  suitable  proportions,  the  medical  materiel,  needed  by  the 
columns. 


140  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

MEANS   OF   TRANSPORT    FOR    THE    SICK. 

The  mode  of  transport  to  adopt  for  the  sick  and  wounded 
has  its  importance.  There  can  be  no  question  here  of  the 
luxurious  conveyances  and  sanitary  trains  which  usually 
accompany  our  Eurojtean  armies. 

In  the  hot  countries,  the  sick  can  best  be  conveyed  to 
the  hospitals  in  boats  or  junks  or  by  ti-ansportation  on  the 
backs  of  animals  or  upon  litters. 

Boats  are  used  only  when  the  distance  is  long.  In  Tong- 
King,  use  is  made  of  junks  so  arranged  as  to  shelter  the  sick 
and  wounded  from  the  sun  and  lain.  In  Madagascar,  there 
were  lighters  and  steamers  with  which  to  descend  the  Betsi- 
boka;  they  would  have  been  more  suitable  if  there  had  been 
a  roof  and  curtains  of  blue  muslin  to  prevent  reverberation. 

Transport  on  the  backs  of  animals  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. In  France,  in  mountain  warfare,  mules  and  horses 
furnished  with  racoJeis  are  used.  This  mode  of  transport  is 
painful  for  tlie  wounded,  and  is  (^onseipiently  not  very  j)rac- 
tical;  it  can  be  used  only  for  a  certain  class  of  sick,  upon 
suital)le  roads,  and  for  short  journeys.  It  constitutes  a  ver- 
itable torture,  under  the  sun,  in  countries  which  have  no 
roads. 

In  the  colonial  wars,  oxen,  camels,  and  even  elephants, 
have  been  employed;  the  objection  to  these  is  even  more 
serious.  In  the  Madagascar  campaign,  it  was  thought  for  a 
moment  of  using  zebus,  the  native  humjied  oxen.  These  ani- 
mals aie  very  numerous  on  the  island;  luit  it  would  have 
been  necessary  to  train  them  to  carry  the  i)ack,  and  the  tiain- 
ing  would  have  taken  several  months  of  patient  work.  At 
Majunga,  some  of  these  zebus  were  trained  to  i>ull  wagons, 
and  even  this  oi)eration  was  not  without  danger. 

Beasts  of  burden  <  an  be  jjrojterly  used  only  in  the  trans 
jioitation  of  rations  and  iiKilh-id :  other  means  must  be  found 
for  the  sick. 


*  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  141 

The  transport  on  the  baric  of  man  is  the  most  practical  and 
coiiifoitable  for  sufferiuo-  men.  It  is  performed  with  the  aid 
of  litters,  haud-barrows,  chairs,  palanquins  constructed  in 
the  fashion  of  the  country,  etc.,  constituting-  a  very  light  and 
easily  managed  ruaforiel. 

The  regulation  war  litter  is  not  very  practical  for  slop- 
ing ground;  moreover,  the  handles  are  too  short  and  the 
bearers,  when  they  have  to  make  a  rather  long  journey,  are 
obliged  to  add  two  handles  of  bamboo  in  order  to  obtain  a 
longer  lever-arm. 

A  good  model  is  the  palan(iuin  used  in  Tong-King.  In 
principle  it  is  composed  of  a  net  suspended  by  its  two  extrem- 
ities from  a  long  bamboo;  the  natives  placed  at  the  ends 
carry  it  upon  their  shoulders;  a  sort  of  carapace,  or  covering, 
placed  above  the  bamboo,  protects  the  recumbent  man  from 
inclemencies. 

The  Dutch  have  improved  on  the  palanipiin  and  have 
adopted  what  they  call  the  Chinese  hand-barrow.  It  is  made 
of  a  piece  of  sail-canvas  L*  meters  long,  at  the  end  of  which 
are  iron  rods  intended  to  keep  the  canvas  stretched.  Each 
rod  has  a  ring  at  the  center.  A  large  bamboo  4  to  5  meters 
long  is  passed  through  the  two  rings,  which  are  fastened  and 
cannot  approach  each  other.  At  each  extremity  of  the  han 
die  is  placed  a  piece  of  hollowed  band^oo,  supporting  a  mat- 
ting roof  to  shelter  the  wounded. 

In  Dahomey,  litters  and  hammocks  were  the  principal 
modes  of  transport  for  the  wounded.  The  hammock  for  two 
bearers,  the  one  most  employed,  was  composed  of  a  bamboo 
of  sufficient  length,  about  2.5  meters,  and  a  material  of  cotton 
or  canvas  in  the  form  of  a  ship  hammock;  the  natives  placed 
the  extremities  of  the  staffs  u{»on  their  heads,  and  could  thus 
complete  a  course  of  G  kilonu'ters  an  hour.  The  hammock 
for  four  bearers,  more  comfortable  for  the  sick,  was  a  sort 
of  bamboo  frame,  provided  with  cotton  cloth. 


142  H i/(/ieiie  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Ill  Madagascar,  tlie  mode  of  traus])oit  cominoiily  em- 
ploy is  the  filanzane.  This  is  a  sort  of  palaiKinin  carried  by 
four  men.  Tlie  a])i)aratus  is  light  and  easily  managed.  It 
is  formed  by  wooden  staves,  eaeli  '^.'^>  meters  in  length,  kept 
apart  to  a  distance  of  only  -U  centimeters  by  two  cross-bars 
of  iron.  An  iron  frame,  having  a  horizontal  part  for  the  seat 
and  a  cnrved  part  for  the  baclv,  is  fixed  upon  uprights  of 
wood.  The  bottom  of  the  frame  is  made  of  cloth;  a  little 
movable  ])lank  sus]>ended  by  cords  sup]iorts  the  feet. 

The  filanzane  is  a  very  practical  apjiaratus  and  is  easily 
procured  in  .Madagascar.  It  was  used  for  carrying  the  sick 
to  the  sanitarium  of  Nossi-Comba.  The  Jjourjaxes  or  Mala- 
gasy bearers  make  great  use  of  this  system;  they  place  the 
extremities  of  the  wooden  bars  on  their  shoulders  and 
almost  always  take  a  lengthened  trot;  they  relieve  each 
other  without  stopping,  changing  shoulders  without  diffi- 
<'ulty,  and  make  4  kilometers  an  hour  in  a  mountainous 
country. 

The  model  in  use  by  the  .Malagasies  would  be  suitable  as 
it  is  for  carrying  a  convalescent.  For  the  seriously  sick  and 
severely  wounded,  it  would  answer  with  a  few  very  simple 
modifications:  a  greater  se])aration  of  the  staves,  the  addi- 
tion of  a  hood  to  give  ])rotection  from  the  sun  or  the  rain, 
and  the  ])]acing  of  a  l»amboo  center  to  sujiport  the  thighs  and 
permit  the  wounded  to  lie  down,  witli  the  lowei-  limbs  well 
supported  uj)on  this  inclined  jilane. 

Whatevei-  the  system  adojded.  it  should  not  he  foi-gor- 
ten  to  provide  a  great  many  of  the  transport  ai)paiatus.  Con- 
sidering the  numbei-  of  sick  that  may  have  to  be  jtrovided 
for,  we  believe  a  geneial-in-chief  onght  to  make  suie  of  hav- 
ing a  littei-  for  every  t<'n  men.  at  least,  to  which  should  he 
attached  two  or  four  bearers. 

In  Dahomey,  in  spite  of  all  the  jiret  aiitions  taken,  it  was 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  143 

neeessniy  to  hastily  inannfactiiie  litters  of  fortniie  with 
branches  of  trees  and  the  canvas  of  tents.  An  armv  of  5000 
men,  going  under  tire,  ought  to  have  2.)M)  coolies  and  500 
litters  for  the  special  servi<-e  of  sanitaiy  convoy. 

HOSPITALIZATION    OF    THE    SICK   AND   WOUNDED. 

Without  counting  the  field  hospitals  and  infirmaries 
where  the  sick  and  wounded  receive  first  aid,  but  where  they 
cannot  remain  for  a  long  time,  there  is  a  choice  between 
three  great  systems  of  hospitalization:  the  campaign  hospi- 
tals, the  hosi)ital-ships,  and  the  sanitaria.  They  answer  to 
different  needs,  and  should  lend  a  mutual  cooperation;  in 
place  of  a  regrettable  antagonism,  it  is  indispensable  that 
there  be  complete  harmony  in  the  services. 

1.     Campaign  Hospitals. 

Whenever  the  operations  are  in  the  interior,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  establish  campaign  hospitals.  The  field  hospital 
of  the  first  line  advances  with  the  troo])s,  and  sometimes, 
when  the  distance  is  considerable,  it  is  useful  to  connect  it. 
by  a  field  hospital  of  the  second  line,  with  the  infirmary  of 
the  garrison,  or,  better  still,  with  the  campaign  hospital 
which  is  to  receive  the  seriously  sick  and  wounded. 

There  should  be  no  waiting  for  these  hospitals  to  be 
made  ready,  and  in  conse(iuence  the  necessary  elements  to 
establish  them  must  be  ])roAided  in  advance. 

Hutting  might  answer,  in  spite  of  the  many  com])laints 
which  have  been  made  about  the  use  of  huts  in  colonial 
expeditions. 

The  hut  is  a  defective  lodging,  often  bad.  If  necessary 
to  erect  huts,  they  should  always  be  built  on  the  double-shell 
principle.  To  compensate  for  the  slight  thickness  of  the 
walls,  they  should  be  doub]«Ml:  double  walls,  double  ceiling, 
double  floor,  inclosing  between  their  two  surfaces  a  cushion 
of  isolated  air. 


14i  lli/f/ieiie  of  the  Soldier  in  the  I'ropics. 

There  are  several  models  in  our  couutry.  By  ohoosiug 
one  possessing  the  desirable  elements,  bearing  in  mind  the 
principle  jnst  laid  down,  it  would  be  easy  to  erect  a  kind 
suitable  for  this  purpose. 

It  might  be  possible  to  utilize  certain  of  those  light  con- 
structions, nmde  for  our  temperate  country,  and  too  sensible 
to  cosmical  action  by  reason  of  their  delicate  texture,  for  use 
in  the  Tropics.  On  that  account  they might  be  placed  under 
great  sheds,  whose  roofs  of  boards  or  straw  would  shelter 
them  from  the  rain,  the  sun,  and  the  humidity.  These  roofs 
should  project  all  around  the  walls  of  the  hut,  thus  making 
a  circular  gallery,  which  could  be  inclosed,  putting  numerous 
doors  and  windows  in  the  wall.  This  would  also  make  a 
habitation  with  double  walls,  ra]»idly  ]»rei»ared,  at  little 
expense,  and  with  all  the  advantages. 

Tents  are  sometimes  employed,  but  they  are  still  more 
inconvenient.  The  shelter-tent,  op<Mi  uj»(>n  three  sides  and 
arranged  so  as  to  form  a  horizontal  roof  and  a  posterior  wall, 
neither  protects  from  reverberation  nor  from  the  wind. 

E^qually  objectionable  are  all  the  closed  tents,  conical  or 
others,  whose  walls  prevent  proper  ventilation. 

A  new  condition  is  imposed  for  colonial  campaigns. 
The  most  simple  model  to  be  recommended  is  one  appr(»ach- 
ing  the  tent  used  upiui  the  deck  of  ships.  It  consists  of  a 
large  tari)aulin,  stretched  upon  four  j)ickets,  with  side  cur- 
tains capable  of  being  raised  or  lowert^d  at  will.  The  uia- 
terial  could  be  made  water-i)roof  on  the  exterior  and  coloi'ed 
in  green  or  blue.  The  ideal  would  be  to  have  it  double.  It 
could  be  sjninkled  in  the  h(»t  liours  of  the  day  to  cool  it  ;ind 
<-ould  be  carefully  covered  with  foliage. 

The  Madagascar  campaign  showed  the  defectiveness  of 
all  these  systems.  The  tents,  while  easy  to  set  up,  were  un- 
inhabitable; th(»  temperature  under  the  great  tent  of  the 


Hygieite  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  145 

liospital  at  Suburbieville  rose  to  38  degrees  at  the  bedside  of 
the  sifk  and  to  42  degrees  between  the  two  canvases.  The 
hnts  adopted  were  of  the  Werhlin-Espitalier  system;  the 
walls  were  made  of  a  trellis  of  iron  wire  and  cocoa  hair;  the 
roof  of  canvas.  The  Malagasy  constructions,  of  raphia,  well 
raised  above  the  ground,  with  a  double  roof  and  wall  and  a 
gallery,  were  the  most  satisfactory  hygienically;  they  were 
to  be  ] (referred  to  all  the  others. 

The  greatest  trouble  with  impiovised  hospitals  is  to 
jtiovidc  all  the  accessories.  The  hosi»ital  at  Majunga  was 
organized  after  a  time;  it  consisted  of  board  huts,  Espitalier 
huts,  and  tents  of  all  kinds;  the  sick  were  passably  quartered, 
but  the  kitchen  was  in  the  open  air,  the  water  failed,  the 
sink-screens  left  much  to  be  desired,  and  disinfection  was 
impossible. 

The  hospitals  were  scarcely  established  before  they 
were  overflowing;  each  was  intended  to  receive  250  men,  and 
they  soon  had  to  shelter  000  and  more.  At  Ankaboka, 
where  the  hospital  of  evacuation  was  located,  there  was  an 
unheard-of  crowding  of  sick.  Coolies  mixed  with  European 
soldiers  were  crowded  there.  It  was  useless  to  give  the 
natives  beds  which  they  would  not  use;  huts  with  a  sort  of 
camp  bed  and  bedding  would  have  sufficed  for  them;  there 
they  would  have  found  more  comfort  and  infection  would 
have  been  less  great. 

Even  in  Europe,  disease  has  always  been  the  great 
enemy  of  armies  in  campaign.  In  colonial  wars  this  enemy 
is  still  more  formidable.  That  is  why  too  great  pains  can- 
not be  taken  to  provide  the  means  capable  of  insuring  the 
proper  care  of  the  sick. 

This  is  an  ajtproved  doctrine  in  ordinary  times;  yet 
everybody  seems  to  be  ignorant  of  it  when  an  expedition  is 
about  to  be  undertaken. 

10 


14G  IJyiiiene  of  the  Soldier  in.  tlte  Tropics. 

2.     Hospital-Ships. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  sick  slioiild  be  withdrawn  from 
the  usually  defective  campaign  hospitals  and  placed  upon 
hospital-ships,  held  as  near  as  possible  to  the  base  of 
operations. 

For  a  long  time  and  with  reason  it  lias  l)een  the  idea  to 
use  ships  for  (luarteiing  and  caring  for  the  sick  in  the  expe- 
ditions to  the  paludal  countries  of  the  ton-id  zone. 

In  1S41,  at  the  time  of  the  Nossi-B^  ex])edition.  the  mor- 
tality diminished  greatly  from  the  time  the  soldiers  of  the 
expeditionary  corps  were  required  to  go  aboard  the  ships 
every  evening.  Observations  of  the  same  kind  were  made 
in  Madagascar  duiing  the  campaign  of  1SS4-1SS5;  the  fever 
never  left  the  men  (puutercd  (Ui  land;  a  sojourn  aboard  could 
alone  relieve  them  of  it. 

This  conviction  undoubtedly  existed  in  the  mind  of  the 
superior  authority  when  it  was  decided,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  expedition  of  1805,  to  send  to  Majunga  the  great  hospital- 
transitort  Shainrorl-.  the  dii-cction  of  which  was  confided  to 
Doctor  Hurot,  chief  surgeon  of  Marine. 

IMaring  in  the  bay  of  Hombetoke  an  admirably  it^gu 
latcd  liosjiital  slii]i,  with  all  tlu^  means  for  assuring  the  wc^ll- 
bcing  of  th(^  sick,  was  not  one  of  the  least  services  rendered 
by  the  ^larine  to  the  (^x]»eeditionai'y  cor])s.  And  it  is  one  of 
till'  measures  which  has  been  received  with  most  favoi-,  since 
it  answered  the  unaniuious  pi-ayer:  Prolecl  our  snldicrs  from 
llic  fcrrr. 

It  can  be  attirnied  that  many  lives  would  have  been 
sjiared  if  the  troojis,  fioiu  their  airi\al.  while  awniting  the 
])rej:arat ions  and  the  march  to  the  front,  had  been  ([uartered 
u])on  the  watei' and  hospitalized  ujion  the  shij»s.  It  is  indis- 
jK'iisable,  in  undertaking  llie  conijuest  of  a  f<'Ver  counti-y 
wheic  nothing  has  been  pn'pared.  to  have  Moating  barracks 


lljlijiciu'  of  the  Soldier  in  flic  Tropics.  147 

for  (iiiarteriiij'  tlu^  men,  at  leas^t  at  night,  and  hosjiital-sliips 
to  care  for  tlir  sick. 

11'/;^//  a  IIospif<(l-Sliip  Ouijht  to  He. — It  is  especially  in 
col(»nial  cx])e<liti()ns  tliat  the  need  of  the  veritable  hospital- 
ship  makes  itself  felt;  but  a  vessel  which  is  to  remain  in  a 
roadstead  to  receive  the  sick  and  care  for  them  ought  to  be 
regulated  dilferently  from  one  intended  for  their  transport 
lo  the  niotht-r-conntry. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  before  its  dei)artur('  from 
France,  the  Shamrocl\  hastily  eiiuipijed,  could  not  have 
received  new  installations  and  that  it  was  impossible  to  pro- 
vide an  organization  compatible  with  the  service  to  be  per 
formed.  It  seems  that  we  had  lost  sight  of  the  example 
of  the  Vicfitr-Emoiinc],  at  the  (lold  Coast,  and  also  of  the 
recommendation  made  twenty  years  ago  by  Admiral  Ryder, 
to  follow  that  model  whenever  it  was  necessary  to  ])repare  a 
new  hospital-shij). 

The  English,  before  sending  the  Victor-E  nut  unci  to  Cape 
Coast,  nuide  some  material  modifications.  All  had  been 
seen  and  calculated  for  the  welfare  of  the  sick.  A  roof,  on  a 
level  with  the  ]>oop,  transformed  the  deck  into  a  supplemen- 
tary broadside.  Movable  ])lanking  was  put  in  for  renewing 
tht^  air,  ])latforms  for  jiromenading  in  the  0])en  air,  beds  for 
certain  classes  of  wounds,  ice-houses,  and  improved  ventilat- 
ing apparatus.* 


♦During  the  last  campaign  against  the  Ashantees,  in  1896-97. 
the  English  fitted  up  the  CUn-onidinhl  in  a  remarkable  manner.  Hav- 
ing chartered  this  superb  steamer  of  4800  tons  from  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Company,  they  transformed  it  into  a  luxurious  hospital, 
furnished  most  suitably:  a  day  salon,  protected  from  the  sun  by  a 
double  roof  and  movable  Venetian  blinds,  an  isolation  ward,  an 
operating-room,  a  steam  apparatus  for  ventilation  between  decks, 
punkas  and  fans  moved  by  steam,  electric  lights,  improved  laundry, 
disinfection  and  distillation  apparatus,  machines  for  making  seltzer- 
water  and  ice,  cold-storage  room   for  preserving  meat,    milk,    and 


148  Htif/ieiie  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

The  crew  lived  forwai'd  and  was -t^epa rated  from  the 
sick,  never  conimnnicatin<i  with  them.  A  special  place  was 
reserved  for  convalescents;  the  hospital  service  was  abso- 
lutely distinct  from  that  of  the  ship.  Doctor  Kecklev,  hav- 
ing- eight  surgeons  under  his  orders  and  a  large  number  of 
assistants,  directed  and  administered  the  hosjutal  in  a  thor- 
ough manner;  he  decided  as  to  the  repatriation  of  the  men, 
the  measures  of  sanitation  or  isolation,  and  the  transport  of 
the  wounded. 

At  Massouah.  the  Italians  transformed  an  old  transport, 
the  Garibalfli,  into  a  hospital.  The  deck  was  made  into  a 
great  hospital  ward;  there  were  large  port-holes  everywhere 
and  well-regulated  private  wards.  Two  hulks  were  attached 
to  the  ship,  on  one  of  which  distilled  water  was  prepared, 
and  on  the  other,  ice — not  only  for  the  hospital,  but  for  the 
whole  garrison. 

At  Souakim,  in  188-1,  the  0 routes  became  a  hospital  of 
300  beds;  the  Ganges,  in  1885,  played  the  same  role. 

With  the  Dutch,  also,  during  the  second  expedition 
against  Atjeh.  the  Filips-Van-Marnix  served  as  a  hospital. 
This  ship  was  under  the  direct  orders  of  a  chief  surgeon,  and 
Van  Leent  informs  us  that  there  was  nothing  but  praise  for 
this  organization. 

In  France,  we  are  far  from  attaining  this  end;  but  we 
could  at  least,  without  reference  to  the  source  of  authority, 
make  some  little  advance.  We  would  say  that  in  order  to 
usefully  fulfill  its  role,  the  Sltaiitrocl-  should  have  been  special- 
ized: like  the  Melrille  at  Hong-Kong,  it  should  have  been  a 
hospital-ship  and  nothing  else. 

It  cannot  be  admitted  that  a  shiii  intended  to  receive  a 

vegetables,  an  electric  kitchen,  and  inodorous   closets   with    auto- 
matic flush.  - 

The  CiinniKiiitlcl  astonished  all  the  surgeons  who  visited  her. 
She  was  unused,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  the  campaign  and  of 
the  hvgienic  measures  which  had  been  taken. 


Hijgiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  149 

^T«^at  niimbei-  of  siek  is  adapted  at  the  same  time  to  the 
transport  of  troops  and  above  all  of  animals,  to  become  a 
store-house  for  supplies,  and  serve  as  a  prison  or  insane  asy- 
lum. In  place  of  being  a  barracks  where  military  drills  are 
carried  on,  it  ought  to  be  a  place  of  repose  where  all  useless 
noises  are  suppressed. 

Specialization  is  the  Law  of  Progress. — This  principle, 
unfortunately,  is  not  sufficiently  ap])lied.  Yet,  everywhere, 
everybody  feels  that  it  is  difficult  to  do  several  things  at 
the  same  time.  On  arriving  at  Majunga,  a  portion  of  the 
personnel  should  have  been  disembarked,  reducing  it  to  a 
minimum  sufficient  to  assure  the  service  of  the  ship's  boats, 
the  manufacture  of  soft  water  and  of  bread,  cleanliness,  and 
discipline. 

An  effective  strength  of  120  men,  in  place  of  300,  would 
have  been  an  economy,  and,  as  a  consequence,  there  would 
have  been  a  greater  number  of  beds.  In  these  conditions, 
the  Shamrocl:  could  have  received  500  sick  in  a  permanent 
manner. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  system  was  the  immediate 
utilization  of  a  hospital  in  working  order  the  same  day  of  its 
arrival.  To  appreciate  this  it  was  only  necessary  to  see  the 
difficulties  experienced  in  establishing  the  hospital  at  Ma- 
junga. With  unheard-of  efforts,  accommodations  for  500 
men  were  prepared  after  a  considerable  time;  but  to  attain 
this  result  it  was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  tents,  which 
had  the  inconvenience  (especially  the  conical  tents)  of  being 
too  hot  in  the  day-time  and  too  cold  at  night. 

The  number  of  beds  was  insufficient  for  the  large 
number  of  sick;  they  were  supplemented  by  litters  placed 
directly  on  the  ground,  which  exposed  the  men  anew  to 
paludal  attack  and  rendered  the  ])ernicious  accesses  more 
frequent  and  more  formidable. 


3  50  IIi/(/iriir  of  the  ^Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

There  was  a  (leticieiic.v  of  water;  the  quantity  was  not 
suttieient  tor  hiundry  pur})()ses,  noi-  even  for  the  bodily  clean- 
liness of  the  men,  who  could  not  wasli  themselves  and  re- 
mained for  a  lon*!^  time  covered  with  dirt  and  dust. 

The  military  health  service  was  very  tjuickly  overrun, 
not  being-  able  to  muJtiidy  itself  l)eyorid  measure. 

\Miat  we  have  just  said  proves  again  that  the  sea 
hospitals  are  the  best  at  the  beginning  of  an  expedition. 
They  permit  the  hosjiital  arrangements  on  shore  to  be  prop- 
erly made  and  comj)let(Ml. 

The  need  at  Madagascar  was  a  stationary  tioating  hos- 
pital, almost  dismantled,  with  hulks  as  annexes,  and  two 
great  transports  to  repatriate  the  sick.* 

The  SJinnirocl-  at  Majinu/a. — The  Sluinirork  was  given  a 
special  personnel :  a  chief  surgeon,  a  surgeon  of  the  1st  class, 
a  surgeon  of  the  2d  class,  a  pharn)acist  of  the  2d  class,  and 
ten  nurses.  It  was  provided  with  all  the  nt^-essary  uuiteriel 
in  the  way  of  medicines,  dressings,  and  instrunuuits.  From 
this  jioint  of  view  nothing  was  lacking. 

First  of  all,  Admiral  I'ienaime,  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  naval  division  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  t(  ok  a  nund)er  of 
energetic  measures. 

The  Slidinrorlt-  was  to  receive  only  Furopeans.  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  natives.  It  is  evid(^ut  that  the  Furopean  and 
Algerian  troops  were  especially  entitled  to  benefit  fiom  the 
advantages  of  a  nautical  habitation.     The  natives  pay  little 

♦During  the  Dahomey  expedition,  in  1892,  the  Miitho,  anchored 
at  Kotonou,  served  quite  extensively  as  a  hospital  for  the  sick  of 
the  expeditionary  corps.  During  the  period  of  active  operations, 
from  August  to  December,  1892,  it  hospitalized  .528  sick,  of  whom 
436  were  fever  patients  and  92  wounded.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
wounded  were  cared  for  on  land  and  the  fever  patients  on  the  .]fiiUio. 
This  was  a  wise  arrangement;  in  fact,  it  may  be  a  difficult  matter  in 
certain  cases  to  remove  a  wounded  man  to  a  great  distance  and 
place  him  upon  a  ship.  In  188.5,  the  Mrr,  the  Ainnnniti,  and  the 
Toiifi-Khiij  served  as  floating  hospitals  for  the  squadron  of  .\dmirai 
Courbet  in  the  China  seas. 


Hiiqienc  of  the  Soldi'T  in  llic  Trojiir^.  151 

attention  to  clcaiiliiiess  and  may  bin-onic  a  sonrcf  of  contani 
ination;  it  is  better  to  keep  tbeni  on  hind  and  together,  ji'iv- 
injj-  them  mats  or  camp  btnls  and  bedding. 

The  kinds  of  (bseases  had  also  to  be  considered. 

If  palndism  in  all  its  forms  is  advanta^tonsl.v  modified 
by  the  sea  climate,  it  is  not  the  same  with  cert;'.in  other  alt'ec- 
tions,  like  tubercnlosis  and  rhenmatism,  which  are  not  a^^ra- 
vated  by  a  sojonrn  on  land. 

The  contaj;ions  diseases,  variola,  measles,  typhoid  fever, 
can  not  be  conveniently  treated  on  board,  becanse  isolation 
is  ditticnlt  when  there  is  no  vessel  as  an  annex. 

The  sick,  npon  admission,  after  bavin*;-  been  examiiu'd 
and  registered,  were  condncted,  wiien  possible,  to  the  bath- 
room, where  their  bodily  cleanliness  was  atterdi'd  to.  INIore- 
over,  the  cleanliness  of  the  sick  was  an  object  of  sjtecial 
attention.    Means  of  ablntion  were  placed  at  their  disposal. 

All  the  effects  of  the  sick  were  passed  throuj;h  the  dis- 
infecting apparatus;  the  shoes  and  other  objects  of  leather, 
not  bein^  able  to  sni)i>ort  the  humid  heat  without  deterio- 
rating, were  disinfected  by  the  sublimate  with  the  aid  of  a 
large  atomizer.  Twice  a  week  the  decks  of  the  hospital  were 
gone  over  with  i>otash  and  washed  with  chloride  of  zinc;  the 
same  for  the  walls  and  for  the  ii'on  and  wood  portions  of 
the  beds. 

At  each  departure,  the  mattress  and  beddini;  were 
passed  through  the  disinfecting  stove.  Whenever  there  was 
a  death  in  a  room,  the  jilace  was  hermetically  sealed  and 
fumigated  with  sulphur  for  twenty-four  hours;  an  atomizer 
with  the  sublimate  was  then  used  in  all  parts  of  the  room, 
which  was  repainted,  while  the  bedding  was  disinfected  by 
va])or  under  pressure. 

The  laundry,  working  regularly,  i>ermitted  the  cleaning 
of  all  the  soiled  linen.  The  hygienic  buckets  always  con- 
tained disinfectants. 


152  Jlijgieite  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

The  sick  were  well  iioiuislied  and  the  meals  as  varied 
as  possible.  The  ration  of  the  siek,  made  ii])  aecordiug  to 
medical  prescriptions,  had  as  its  base  the  ration  aboard: 
bread,  meat,  beans,  coffee,  and  sngar;  in  addition,  there  were 
commodities  specially  embarked  for  the  sick,  and  finally, 
there  was  bought  on  the  spot,  to  replace  the  commodities 
embarked,  any  thing  which  could  improve  the  mess. 

The  general  recaititulation  of  the  foods  dispensed  in  the 
hospital  of  the  SJiainrocl-  was  scruimiously  nuide.  The  calcu- 
lations were  nuide  for  each  commodity  separately. 

The  food  on  the  Shamrocl\  in  regard  to  variety  and  prep- 
aration, was  equal  to  that  of  a  great  hospital  in  France,  and 
yet,  taking  everything  into  account,  each  jiatient  was  fed  at 
a  rate  of  1  fr.  37  iter  day. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  consider  the  cost  price  of  the 
ration  for  the  ])atient  in  a  camjiaign  hosi)ital.  and  establish 
the  comjiarison. 

The  soldiers  all  wanted  to  go  to  the  Shanirocl\  and  some 
of  them  considered  themselves  saved  when  they  saw  their 
names  on  the  removal  list.  They  would  no  more  be  put  to 
bed  on  the  ground,  in  the  dust,  and  they  kn(^w  they  would  find 
what  was  necessary. 

Results  of  the  Campaign. — The  results  of  the  campaign 
are  easy  to  ai)preciate. 

From  the  day  of  the  dii)arture  from  Toulon,  the  I'Tth  of 
January,  3805,  to  the  day  of  return,  the  15th  of  September, 
of  the  same  year,  in  eight  months  and  fifteen  days,  there  were 
<;.H  deaths  on  board.  From  this  number  it  is  necessary  to 
deduct  3,  pertaining  to  the  crew  or  to  sailors  embarked  for 
^subsistence. 

The  ShajnrorJi-  having  really  commenced  its  service  as  a 
hospital  shi])  only  in  iho  month  of  March,  thi^e  rc^main  (50 
deaths  for  a  period  of  six  months,  among  the  men  received 


If  i/(/lcii('  of  llie  Soldier  in  llie  Tropics.  153 

iis  patients:  this  j^ives  10  deaths  jier  month,  or  1  every  three 
days.  This  proportion  is  not  comparable  to  that  of  the  same 
epocli  in  the  campaign  hospitals,  at  ^Nlajunga  and  especially 
at  Aukaboka;  it  approaches,  moreover,  though  it  is  inferior 
to,  that  usually  observed  in  the  hospitals  of  Toulon  and 
Saint-Mandrier. 

In  the  60  are  included  not  only  the  deaths  which  took 
place  at  Majunga  while  the  shij)  was  stationed  there,  but  also 
those  W'hich  took  place  during  the  return  voyage,  and  which 
considerably  increase  the  proportion. 

The  sanitary  condition  of  the  Shamrock  may  be  looked  at 
from  two  different  standpoints.  In  the  five  months  from  the 
loth  of  March  to  the  15th  of  August,  there  were  20  deaths; 
in  one  month,  from  the  15th  of  August  to  the  15th  of  Sep- 
tember, there  were  40.  The  projiortion  at  departure  from 
Majunga  had  been  1.5  per  cent;  the  return  voyage  raised  it 
to  3  per  cent. 

During  the  entire  period  of  six  months  the  Shamroch 
received  2000  sick;  there  was  a  daily  average  of  300,  giving 
4(),000  hospital  days. 

Relatively,  the  total  number  of  (>0  deaths  for  such  a 
large  number  of  sick,  and  under  such  exceptional  circum- 
stances, is  of  a  nature  to  inspire  reflection. 

In  August,  the  sanitary  situation  had  become  very  crit 
ical  in  Madagascar,  and,  if  the  transports  were  put  to  the  sad 
necessity  of  throwi»g  many  cadavers  into  the  sea,  it  was 
chiefly  because  the  sick  were  in  a  state  of  intense  cachexy 
when  they  were  embarked.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
repatriation  did  not  commence  sooner. 

After  w'hat  took  place  on  the  unhealthy  banks  of  the 
Betsiboka,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  campaign  hospitals 
would  have  been  advantageously  replaced  by  ships,  hulks, 
or  lighters,  anchored  at  diff"erent  points  of  the  river.     The 


154  Ili/giciic  of  the  Soldier  in  flic  Tropics. 

luilltai-y  isni-geons  were  devoted;  they  aceoiuplishi  d  their 
duty  with  the  .ureatest  intelligence,  but  they  could  not  shelter 
their  sick  from  the  efiiuvia  of  the  marshes.  In  the  course 
of  the  campaign,  everybody  regretted  not  having  had  sev- 
eral floating  hospitals:  some  stationary,  to  receive  all  the 
sick  of  the  expeditionary  corps;  others  mobile,  to  conduct 
them  to  the  sanitaria  or  to  France. 

3.      Soniforid. 

In  colonial  campaigns,  there  has  been  a  thought  of  using 
certain  localities,  favored  as  to  situation  and  altitude,  in 
order  to  send  there,  upon  their  departure  from  tiie  hospitals, 
the  sick,  or  rather  the  convalescents,  in  the  iiope  that,  after  a 
few  weeks  of  rep»)se,  they  might  be  able  to  i-ejoin  the  column. 
It  is  principally  in  Madagascar  that  this  has  been  tried. 

In  1884,  places  of  convalescence  had  been  sought  on  thi^ 
East  Coast.  The  results  were  bad,  none  of  the  places  chosen 
having  fnltilled  the  conditions  of  a  veritable  sanitarium.  The 
island  of  Reunion,  thirty  hours  from  Tamatave,  was  tried  for 
the  purpose,  and  then  al;and<uied  because  it  did  not  render 
the  services  expected.  Men  were  sent  back  to  Madagascar, 
after  a  short  sojourn  at  Saint-Denis,  who  were  seriously 
affected  by  jjabulisui.  Reunion  could  then  have  rendeicd 
real  service,  but  on  the  express  condition  of  starving  as  a 
place  of  transition  between  Madagascar  and  France,  for  the 
paludal  patients  who  were  no  moic  to  be  sent  to  the  great 
Malagasy  Island. 

Before  the  campaign  of  IS!);"),  the  creation  of  a  sanita- 
rium was  decided  ujion;  \arions  locations  iiad  been  i»roi)osed 
and  tlie  Minister  of  War  had  sent  a  commission  to  slud\  the 
(jui'stion  upon  tiie  sjx)!.  The  island  of  Anjouan  presented 
certain  advantages;  Mount  d'Ambre  had  its  pailisans. 
Nossi-Comba  was  selected,  and,  in  our  opinion,  was  the  best 
j)lace. 


Hi/f/ienc  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Trogics.  155 

111  ilioosiug  Nossi-Coniba.  the  delegates  of  the  Minister 
of  War  eonfoiined  to  the  reeoiuiuendations  of  several  of  our 
eoUeajiues  of  the  Marine.  Nossi-Coniba  is  only  an  hour  by 
boat  from  Hell-Ville,  eapital  of  the  colony  of  Nossi-B^,  pro- 
vided with  alimentary  resources  and  upon  the  route  of  the 
regular  packet-boats.  To  come  from  Majunga,  twenty-four 
hours  suffice  by  a  sea  always  calm,  well  sheltered  by  the  cen- 
tral ridge  of  Madagascar.  The  disembarkation  of  the  s!ck  is 
easy;  there  is  an  excellent  anchorage  for  large  vessels  in  a 
little  roadstead  }»artially  circumscribed  by  islets. 

The  island  of  Nossi-Comba,  formed  of  two  cones  in  juxta- 
position, is  relatively  healthy;  it  is  not  inaish\.  There  is  a 
sandy  beach  and  sloping  ground,  which  facilitates  natural 
drainage.  Shade  is  found  there,  and  the  sea  breezes,  blowing 
from  the  north  in  the  morning  and  the  south  in  the  afternoon, 
maintain  a  beuf^ficial  ventilation. 

The  establishment  was  constructed  at  an  altitude  of  4S0 
meters  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  upon  a  crest  transformed 
by  tlu^  care  of  the  engineers.  Unfortunately,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  remove  the  soil  from  great  surfaces  in  order  to  level 
the  site  and  erect  the  hutting.  The  conse(]uences,  always 
the  same  in  these  regions,  did  not  delay  in  making  them- 
selves felt  by  the  soldier-workmen. 

The  constructions  of  the  sanitarium  comprised:  1.  Hut- 
tings of  the  type  adopted  by  the  administration,  with  frames 
of  iron  (Werhlin-Espitalier  system)  of  two  models;  one,  a 
veritable  shed,  a.  sick  ward  for  tbe  men;  the  other,  a  little 
more  comfortable,  for  the  use  of  the  officers.  '2.  Large 
woo(l(Mi  huts  built  in  the  fashion  of  the  country  and  also 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  sick.  H.  Annexes  and  local  acc(\s- 
sories  of  the  same  constiuction,  but  without  boards. 

The  Werhlin-EspitalitM-  huts  i»resented  some  incon- 
veniences which  it  will  be  usefnl  to  [loint  out.     The  hinged 


156  Hygiene  of  the  iSoldier  in  the  Tropics. 

sheet-iron  used  as  a  root"  absorbed  an  enormous  quantity  of 
heat,  which  was  reflected  to  the  inside,  the  more  so  as  these 
huts  have  no  ceiling.  Thev  were  not  sufficiently  elevated 
above  the  ground;  there  was  no  floor  under  the  gallery  serv- 
ing as  a  place  of  promenade  and  as  a  dining-room.  Finally, 
the  soil  had  been  excavated  for  the  construction  of  the  plat- 
forms upon  which  they  were  built.  Thus  the  nurses  and  the 
sappers  of  the  engineers  were  attacked  by  fevers,  born  upon 
the  si)ot,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  distinguished 
chief  surgeon  of  the  sanitarium,  Doctor  Malinas,  himself. 

The  huts  constructed  by  the  local  administration  in  the 
Malagasy  fashion  did  not  have  these  inconveniences,  and 
presented  other  advantages  besides. 

Composed  of  an  immense  floor  of  mangrove,  supported 
by  pillars  of  the  same  nuiterial,  the  height  of  which  above 
the  ground  varied  according  to  the  declivity,  they  were  (! 
meters  high  under  the  ridge  parallel  to  the  median  and  longi 
tudinal  axis  of  the  floor.  On  each  side,  the  exterior  portion 
of  a  double  inclineni  plane  formed  the  gallery.  This  roof, 
supported  by  mangrove  trunks  joined  together  l)y  wooden 
traverses,  had  a  skeleton  with  strong  ribs  of  raphia,  covered 
by  very  regularly  imbricated  leaves  of  the  ranevala.  Under 
this  sort  of  shed  was  placed  the  hut  proper,  serving  as  a 
ward  for  the  sick. 

These  huts  were  very  cool,  bathed  on  all  sides  by  air  and 
light.  The  ventilation  was  chiefly  provided  by  four  doors, 
two  on  each  of  the  long  sides  and  ojjjtosite  those  on  the  other 
side,  but  ventilation  was  also  provided  in  an  insensible  man- 
ner through  the  interstices  of  the  walls.  A1  the  two  extremi- 
ties of  the  shed,  the  triangular  gable  was  likewise  covered 
with  ranevala  leaves,  imbricated,  in  order  to  pi-event  th<^ 
entiance  of  the  obliipie  rays  of  the  rising  and  setting  sun. 

This  proves  on<'e  more  the  advantage  of  kno^^^ng  the 


Hi/f/ienr  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  157 

resources  of  the  country  where  one  is  established  and  which 
it  is  a  question  of  utilizing.  Enormous  expense  of  transport 
and  material  are  avoided;  one  goes  faster  and  does  better. 
At  all  times  and  in  all  places  the  surgeons  of  the  expedition- 
aiy  columns  have  preferred,  to  the  barracks  in  sections,  the 
constructions  of  fortune  judiciously  disposed,  according  to 
the  resources  and  the  fashion  of  the  country  in  which  the 
operations  have  taken  place. 

The  bedding  comprised  250  iron  bedsteads  with  sgi'ings 
and  mattresses,  and  250  bed-litters,  of  the  Strauss  system, 
for  convalescents. 

The  water,  coaxed  from  various  sources,  was  of  good 
quality  and  was  nearly  sufficient;  but  it  was  necessary  to 
establish  a  system  of  canals  and  to  construct  reservoirs.  On 
t-wo  different  occasions  the  delivery  diminished  in  a  man- 
ner to  cause  uneasiness. 

The  supplies  came  from  Xossi-Bc^.  The  road,  laid  out  bv 
the  engineers  along  an  old  path,  was  4  kilometers  in  length, 
but,  owing  to  its  grade,  was  impassable  for  wagons.  Thus 
the  commodities  necessary  for  food  were  brought  each  morn- 
ing on  the  backs  of  men. 

If  the  inconveniences  to  which  the  higher  altitude  would 
expose  the  men  had  been  known  in  advance,  otli^r  disposi- 
tions would  certainly  have  been  made.  It  would  have  been 
useful,  according  to  the  proposition  of  Admiral  Bienaim^,  to 
locate  a  first  hospital  at  Ampangourine,  upon  the  border  of 
the  sea,  at  the  very  i>oint  of  disembarkation,  in  a  situation  as 
agreeable  as  healthy.  There,  those  sent  from  the  other  hos- 
pitals could  have  lived,  and  only  the  convalescents,  the 
anjemics,  would  have  been  sent  to  the  heights. 

At  Nossi-Comba  the  nights  were  cool  and  damp;  in  July 
it  was  26  to  28  degrees  during  the  day  and  16  to  18  degrees 
during  the  night.     Beginning  at  6  o'clock  in  the  evening, 


168  Jli/f/iene  of  flie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

there  AViis  a  mist,  and  in  tlie  niorninji,  at  reveille,  eaerytliinj; 
was  covered  with  dew. 

The  attacks  of  tev(^r  there  weie  less  frecpient  than  at 
Majnnga;  but,  as  is  the  rule  under  the  circumstances,  diar- 
rhteas  were  more  numerous;  rheunuitism  and  tuberculosis 
patients  did  not  do  well  there. 

The  hope  of  sending  the  men  back  to  the  column 
after  treatment  was  delusive.  In  reality,  Nossi-Comba  was 
restricted  to  use  as  a  station  between  INIadagascar  and  the 
ships  charged  with  repatriation.  It  was  no  longer  ana^mics 
more  or  less  worn  out  by  the  hot  climate,  who  came  there  in 
search  of  health,  but  men  heavily  depressed  by  attacks  of  a 
formidable  paludism  and  whom  it  was  important  to  shelter 
as  quickly  as  ]»ossible  fiom  danger  ]»y  sending  them  back  to 
France. 

If  the  mountainous  climates  in  the  tro])ica]  regi(U!s  have 
an  incontestible  advantage  as  a  means  of  itreservation  from 
paludal  diseases,  they  ])resent  dangers  which  should  be  well 
known  when  it  is  pi-o])osed  to  establish  a  sanitarium,  the 
object  of  which,  in  a  hot  country,  is  very  different  from  what 
one  is  accustomed  to  believe  it  in  Europe. 

In  1S1>5,  in  Japan,  at  Nagasaki,  Admiral  de  lieaumont. 
counnanding  the  nuA'al  division  of  the  Extreme-Orient,  had 
tlic  hapjiy  idea  of  i-euTiiig.  upon  ilu'  heights  which  dominate 
the  magniliceut  roadstead,  a  •■onntry-house  belonging  to  a 
i-eligious  congregation,  in  oidcr  to  send  th(M-e  for  convalet*- 
ccncc.  in  Se]iteniber  and  October,  a  cerlaic  number  of  sailors 
of  the  naval  division,  who  had  been  attacked  by  cholera 
and  the  paludal  feveis  of  Woosuiig.  h  was  auiced  that, 
according  to  i-nsrei-.  one  of  the  snigeoiis  ol  tile  shii»s  |ires- 
ent  in  the  i-oadstead  should  -o  twice  a  week  to  Tomaclii 
to  visit  the  convalescents.  .\n  nion  ir/iosc  rondiHon  (Icnunidfd 
virdiral  rnrr  irns  to  In'  sent  to  the  sanitarium.  Tlie  <'stabljsh- 
nieiii  was  to  furnish  e\c<'l!(MiI  food. 


Ilijijkiw,  of  Ike  Soldier  in.  the  Tropics.  159 

All  the  pallidal  ])atieiits  sent  niidcn-  these  coiuliticjiis  to 
Toiiiachi  recoveiea  lapidlv  and  were  able  to  rejoin  their  ships 
completely  cured.  On  the  contrary,  there  were  relapses 
among  the  former  diarrhoea  i)atients,  which  neces&itat(^d 
their  repatriation. 

Diarrhoea,  dysentery,  and  hepatitis  do  not  disai)]>ear  in 
the  heights  of  the  tropical  countries;  far  from  it,  they  reap- 
pear. The  dampness  and  the  coolness  of  the  nights  provoke 
their  reappearance,  and  also  that  of  paludal  attacks  in  the 
case  of  pers(ms  who  commit  the  slightest  imprudence. 

The  tendency  to  diarrhoea  is  so  marked  that  several  Eng- 
lish surgeons  have  written  that  the  diarrluea  of  the  moun- 
tains is  only  a  transformation  of  the  malaria,  which  in  infe- 
rior regions  produces  the  attack  of  fever.  It  is  sure,  how 
ever,  that  this  diarrhoea  of  the  heights  (piickly  jtroduces  an 
aua?mic  condition;  it  has  a  cacluM-tical  influence  like  scurvy. 
It  is  ameliorated  neither  by  uu'dicine  nor  diet;  repatria- 
tion alone,  the  sea-voyage,  can  restore  the  blood  of  the  sick 
to  its  norniMl  condition,  if  there  is  yet  time. 

So,  if  tli<^  altitudes  prevent,  they  do  not  cure;  the  sani- 
taria of  hot  eountrit^s  should  never  be  hos])itals,  but  sim]>ly 
places  of  waiting  for  the  convalescents  to  be  repatriated:  in 
the  nautical  habitation,  the  hos]»ital-shii»  sjiecially  prei)ared, 
there  is  health  for  the  ])aludal  patients  whose  cure  is  still 
possible. 

Experience  has  always  and  everywhere  demonstrated 
the  excellence  of  this  system,  and  in  Madagascar,  before  the 
expedition,  everybody  was  of  this  ojiinion.  Th(^  o])erations 
once  begun,  it  was  too  late;  the  utilization  of  the  enormous 
materiel  sent  from  France  obti-uded  itself. 

Contrary  to  current  ideas  and  to  the  interpretations 
which  have  been  given  to  the  role  of  a  sanitarium,  the  fig- 
ures furnished  by  the  hospital  of  Tamatave  confirm  what  wo 
have  just  said. 


]60  Hi/f/iciic  of  the  iSoldicr  in  llic  Tropics. 

From  the  12tli  of  December,  1>;1>4.  the  day  of  the  arrival 
of  the  troops,  to  the  20th  of  February,  189(1,  the  day  of  the 
raising;  of  tlie  state  of  sie<ie  in  Madagascar,  i'u'A  men  were 
sent  from  Tamatave  to  tlie  varions  sanitary  establishments 
of  Reunion.  In  the  case  of  these  r»7:!,  who  all  presented 
slightly  accentuated  symptoms  of  malarial  impregnation,  we 
observe  the  following:  10  died  at  Keuuion;  282  were  directly 
repatriated;  1G7  were  kept  in  service  in  the  island;  142  re- 
mained under  treatment  until  the  20th  of  Febniary,  1896; 
122  only  were  judged  capable  of  returning  to  Madagascar. 
In  short,  18  per  cent  of  the  number  were  able  to  rejoin; 
but  if  we  follow  these  122  men,  we  can  judge  what  they  were 
worth.  In  the  six  months  following  their  return.  2  died;  7 
Creoles  had  to  be  sent  again  to  their  country.  Reunion; 
32  were  repatriated  as  sick;  only  81  lasted  more  than  six 
months,  but  they  furnished  such  a  number  of  days  on  the 
sick-report  that  their  services  may  be  considered  as  having 
been  practically  worthless. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  of  Doctor  Robert,  when  he  says 
that  early  repatriation  would  liave  been  unuc  etticaciiuis  and 
less  burdensome.  The  hospitals  of  Reunion  have  been  of 
service  only  in  preparing  for  repatriation  some  of  the  sick 
who  would  probably  have  died  if  they  had  been  put  directly 
en  route  to  France.  The  sanitaria  are  not,  and  never  will  be, 
more  than  waiting  hospitals:  tliis  should  be  remembered  in 
our  future  colonial  expeditions. 

F.VACUATIONS. 

All  uicii  \\li(»  have  been  seriously  atl'ected  l)y  the  cli- 
mate slioiild  be  retained  to  the  mother  country,  if  they  are 
able  to  stand  a  sea-voyage. 

The  English  have  set  us  the  example  at  the  (lold  Coast, 
in  repatriating  their  sick;  we  had  reason  to  imitate  them  in 
Dahonu'y,  in  1800  nnd  1802.    •*Once  ilic  organism  is  attacked, 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Trojiics.  1^1 

once  the  long  drama  of  intoxication  is  commenced."  M.  L. 
Colin  has  said,  "the  wiser  it  is  to  have  recourse,  when  possi- 
ble, to  an  absolute  and  positive  prophylactic  remedy:  repatri- 
ation. This  is  why  w^e  send  back  to  France,  from  Kome,  so 
many  of  ttur  soldiers,  who,  once  attacked,  would  run  not  only 
all  the  risks  of  frequent  and  sometimes  mortal  relapses,  but 
who,  besides,  by  reason  of  their  progressive  weakening, 
would  become  completely  unfit  for  the  exigencies  of  the 
military  service." 

For  fever  patients,  the  greatest  danger  is  to  continue  to 
live  in  the  atmosphere  which  has  poisoned  them.  Experience 
has  shown  that  repatriation  at  an  opportune  time  almost 
always  results  in  rapid  recovery  from  fevers.  No  doubt, 
sonu-  might  have  the  fever  in  France;  pernicious  sittacks 
might  even  be  presented  there,  the  develo]»ment  precipitated 
by  a  brusque  change  of  climate;  this  fretpiently  caus.'S  pneu- 
monia, always  serious  for  cachectics.  These  individual  acci- 
dents cannot  be  invoked  against  a  general  measure,  the  more 
so  since  they  are  ecpially  formidable  in  the  higher  altitudes 
of  the  sanitaria. 

France  has  always  been,  and  always  will  be,  the  best 
place  of  convalescence  for  our  colonial  soldiers. 

In  an  expedition  like  that  of  Madagascar,  it  is  not  sutti- 
cient  to  provide  for  sending  the  sick  of  the  column  to  the 
coast;  it  is  necessary  to  have  from  the  beginning  a  service  of 
evacuation  to  France.  The  true  hospital  of  evacuation  ought 
to  be  a  ship  carrying  all  the  sick  judged  useless  to  the  expe- 
ditionary corps. 

There  should  have  been  organized,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  operations,  a  system  of  rapid  evacuation  from  Ma 
junga  to  Algiers,  Toulon,  and  Marseilles.     It  was  due  to  the 
tenacity  of  M.  Emery-Desprousses,  surgeon  inspector,  that  a 
solution  in  this  sense  was  arrived  at,  unfortunately,  a  little 


162  /[  i/i/irnc  of  Ihe  Soldier  in  I  lie  Tropics. 

late,  and  only  when  The  diieetor  of  the  health  service  of  the 
expeditionai-.v  corps  had  no  more  trouble  in  denionstratiuj;, 
by  the  deaths  daily  recorded  in  Madagascar,  that  repatria- 
tion was  the  only  cliance  for  safety. 

Once  more  it  may  be  said  that  a  sojourn  in  tlic  tem- 
porary hospitals  on  land  uixui  a  marshy  coast  cannot  cure 
the  fever.  ^Moreover,  every  sick  and  wounded  man  entering 
one  of  them,  whatever  the  nature  of  his  affection,  is  exposed 
to  contract  the  fever. 

A  colonial  exjjedition  commences  in  France  and  ends 
there;  that  is  to  say,  the  important  duties  of  forwarding  the 
personnel  and  niaferiel,  and  of  the  re})atriation  and  contin- 
ued evacuation  of  the  sick,  are  intimately  connected  with  the 
operations.  It  may  be  affirmed  that  the  success  of  the  enter- 
prise is  determined  upon  the  water.  u]ton  the  sea,  as  well  as 
upon  the  territory  to  which  we  carry  our  arms,  and  that  the 
military  and  hygienic  success  of  the  campaign  depends  upon 
the  projier  woiking  of  this  doul)le  service:  on  the  one  hand, 
the  forwarding  of  elenu'uts  new  and  serviceable;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  the  elimination  of  (elements  worn  out.  Only  the 
military  or  niilitarized  services  are  cajiable  of  ]iro]ierly  <-ar- 
lying  out  such  a  jirogramme. 

That  is  why  the  IVIinister  of  Marine  will  always  have, 
independently  of  the  military  role  of  the  wai-  tieet,  very  giave 
obligations  and  very  heavy  buidens  in  case  of  a  colonial 
expedition;  and,  in  our  o])inion.  this  is  not  the  least  reason 
which  (luglit  to  militate  in  fa\(ir  of  keeping  the  colonial 
troops  in  the  department  to  which  they  belong  to-day. 

Public  opinion  was  aroused  in  France  by  seeing  those 
rei>atriated  fiom  .Madagascar  and  by  learning  the  nund)er 
of  deaths  which  had  taken  place  en  rmile.  The  emoliiui  was 
(]uickly  calmed  when  ii  was  learn< d  what  had  taken  place  in 
tlie  island  its<'If. 


n ifl/inii'  of  the  iSdIdIrr  in  llic  Tiopica. 


163 


While  UUO  men  (lied  in  the  hospitals  on  land,  an  average 
of  4  per  day,  the  deaths  on  the  transports  averaged  only  2 
per  day. 

With  an  ecpial  number  of  sick  in  the  same  condition,  the 
deaths  on  the  voyage  were  only  half  as  great,  and  those  who 
arrived  in  Fiance  had  many  more  chances  of  recovery,  for  the 
sn])reme  hoite  of  the  sick  soldier  was  to  see  again  his  native 
land. 

If  the  repatriation  had  begun  in  \\)\\\,  the  men  would 
not  have  arrived  at  the  degree  of  anipmia  which  they  pre- 
sented in  the  following  months.  Those  re]»atriated  on  the 
Shamrock  came  partly  from  the  hospital  of  Ankaboka;  they 
were  in  a  lamentable  state  when  they  embarked:  their  faces 
were  pale  and  swollen,  their  intelligence  extinguished,  their 
limbs  half  paralyzed.  On  the  evening  of  the  day  of  their 
arrival,  several  died  suddenly.  Very  evidently  it  was  not 
the  embarkation  which  killed  them,  but  cachexy.  Logical 
conclusion:  end)arked  sooner,  they  would  not  have  died. 

Kepatriation  was  then  indicated;  it  should  have  been 
speedily  ordered  and  surrounded  by  certain  sui)iilementary 
guaranties.  The  sanitaria,  which  could  not  cui-e,  would  have 
been  able  to  keep  the  seriously  sick  and  iuei)are  the  others 
for  the  journey;  that  is  to  say,  clean  them,  clothe  them,  cheer 
them  up,  and  S(^nd  them  aboard  only  when  in  a  condition  to 
suiijjort  the  voyage. 

The  isolation  ilfpol  at  Majungji  should  have  furnished 
articles  of  clothing  to  (^ach  soldier  about  to  be  i-epatriated; 
issues  of  soa])  ;nid  tobacco  should  have  been  made  to  each 
man,  either  from  the  subsistence  supplies,  or  from  the  gifts 
of  the  patriotic  aid  societies.  This  was  only  ]iartially  done. 
Thanks  to  the  societies,  wlntse  aid  has  been  so  useful,  the 
soldiers  were  at  least  provided  with  warm  clothing. 

The  dangerous  jdiase  of  repatriation  at  that  time  was 


164  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

the  ciossiug  of  the  Red  Sea,  as  is  almost  always  the  case, 
cousideriug  the  situation  of  our  colonies.  It  is,  above  all,  a 
question  of  season:  when  the  sun  is  highest — in  September, 
for  example — th«^  voyage  is  the  most  to  be  feared.  In  the 
hottest  seasons,  it  is  chiefly  when  one  lands  during  the  out- 
ward voyage  that  one  suffers  most.  The  frequent  breeze 
from  the  north  often  makes  the  return  voyage  easier  to  bear. 
With  ships  of  great  speed,  at  least  15  knots,  the  progress  of 
the  vessel  facilitates  the  aeration  of  the  inhabited  quarters. 
They  should  therefore  be  given  the  preference  and  stops  at 
Djibouti  and  Aden  should  b«^  avoided,  as  they  are  more  dis- 
tressing than  the  voyage  itself.* 

Variations  of  temperature  aie  not  less  to  be  feared.  On 
entering  the  Red  Sea  in  summer,  the  thermometer  suddenly 
jumps  from  20  to  35  and  40  degrees,  where  it  remains  during 
the  crossing,  and  then  descends  again  to  about  20  degrees 
on  leaving  the  canal. 

Advanced  cachectics  are  inadeipiate  to  the  gymnastics 
imposed  by  this  temperature  on  their  lungs  and  skin. 

On  the  whole,  in  bad  conditions  of  sojourn,  especially 
when  confronted  by  paludism,  repatriation,  cost  what  it  may, 
is  the  only  rational  method  of  treatment,  as  M.  L.  Colin 
has  said. 

If  the  exj)editionary  corps  in  Madagascar  had  contin 
ued  to  remain  in  the  valley  of  the  Betsiboka,  if  it  had  not 
been  decided  a  little  later  to  repatriate,  the  army  would  have 
disappeared  and  the  disaster  would  perhaps  have  surpassed 
that  of  San  Domingo. 

§  V.     rfi/(/i('iiir  Condiicl  of  Operations. 

Let  us  suppose  that  everything  is  prepared  for  an  expe- 

*In  motion,  there  is  always  a  little  breeze;  at  anchor,  there  is 
none.  Hospital-trans])orts  should  be  very  fast  in  order  to  cross  the 
dangerous  zone  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  they  should  have  suftl- 
cient  supplios  to  make  it  unnecessary  to  stop  at  intermediate  ports. 


llyyiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  165 

dition  and  that  the  campaign  begins;  we  are  going  to  fol- 
low the  soldier  and  give  some  more  advice.  Indeed,  we  must 
still  examine  the  measures  relative  to  the  concentration  of 
the  troops  at  the  base  of  operations,  the  march  to  the  front, 
encamping,  and  hygiene. 

CONCENTRATION. 

After  having  chosen  his  troops,  the  chief  will  take  the 
necessai-}'  steps  to  concentrate  them  at  a  point  whence  they 
can  be  put  in  march. 

This  concentration,  and  the  whole  campaign  as  well, 
should  be  made  in  the  favorable  season— that  is,  the  dry  sea- 
son and  also  the  cool  season. 

The  operations  should  take  place  from  October  to  April  jji 

in  Tong-King;  from  November  to  February  in  Cochin-China;  ' 

from  October  to  March  in  Senegal.  At  Benin,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  necessary  to  act  in  the  season  of  the  high  waters, 
from  August  to  October,  because  the  herbaceous  vegetation 
will  then  have  disappeared  and  this  disappearance  will  per- 
mit of  movement,  while  the  state  of  the  rivers  will  allow  an 
easy  access  to  the  gun-boats. 

It  would  be  a  great  error  to  order  an  expedition  at  the 
moment  when  an  epidemic  has  just  broken  out  in  the  ter- 
ritory the  troops  would  have  to  cross.  The  epidemic  would 
find  in  the  march  of  the  columns  a  ready  means  of  diffusion, 
and  would  not  fail  to  levy  a  heavy  mortuary  tribute  on  the  « 

effectives.  T 

During  the  period  of  concentration,  care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  fatiguing  the  troops  excessively,  and  especially  to 
avoid  marches  which  would  exhaust  them  prematurely  and 
result  only  in  the  inconvenience  of  a  loss  of  much  time.  The 
sea  or  the  rivers,  those  roads  which  march,  should  be  utilized. 
The  rapidity  with  which  the  tians]»oit  and  concentration  of 


1C6  Hi/fjieiic  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

tlu-  units  at  tlu'  initial  point  is  made,  whethei'  by  despatch- 
boats,  ship's  boats,  and  tugs,  or  by  siiui)h^  junks  and  lif2;htei-s, 
>\'ill  be  a  condition  of  success. 

It  was  a  to(>  sh)\\  conccMitration  and  a  (h'fectixc  organi- 
zation which  set  ni  to  have  produced  the  bad  sanitary  results 
ol  the  campaign  of  Madagascar.  While  the  iiuiterivl  followc-d 
tlie  water-way,  all  the  troops  marched  j)ainfully  by  laud.  It 
took  tluMu  thiee  months  to  reach  Suberbieville,  where  they 
could  have  been  trans|n)rted  in  titteen  days,  if  all  the  disi»os- 
able  means  had  been  employed.  The  fortitied  posts  of  the 
Hovas  were  echeloned  along  the  river  and  accessible  by  tin- 
water-way.  The  Gabes  and  the  Jlo'eni,  used  by  the  commander 
in-chief  of  the  naval  division,  Admiral  Bienaim^,  to  recoa- 
noiter  the  river,  would  have  been  able  to  occupy  Marohogo, 
Mevarana,  and  Maroway.  The  troops  could  have  been  trans 
ported  by  boat  to  within  25  kilometers  of  Suberbieville,  and 
thus  sjjared  a  march  of  2(;()  kilometers  across  the  marshes. 
The  concentration  of  men  and  nidtfriel  could  have  been  made 
at  Suberbieville;  it  was  possible  to  push  on  as  far  as  Andriba 
without  making  a  road,  and,  after  a  second  concenti-ation. 
the  column  could  have  started,  as  it  did,  for  Tananarive). 

THE    MARCH    TO    THE    FRONT. 

There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  result  of  fatigue  imposed  on 
soldiers  camj)aigning  in  a  jironounced  ])alndal  country  Wkv 
Sent-gal,  the  Soudan,  or  .Madagascai'.  It  nia\  be  said  that 
each  step  of  our  columns  towards  I  he  center  of  the  lUack 
Continent  or  towards  the  capital  of  rKmyrne  has  been 
marked  by  a  d<'ad  body. 

The  jirincipal  object  of  a  corps  commamler,  then,  will 
be  to  husband  the  strength  of  his  trooi)s.  The  marches 
should  be  made  dui-ing  the  least  hot  poitions  of  the  <la.\. 
TJicii-  duration,  broken  by  halts  of  ten  minutes  e\«'iy  luuir. 
should  be  from  t  hi-ee  to  li\  c  hoU!-s.  at  most .  dni-ing  vvliich  will 


Ili/f/ieiic  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  167 

be  covered,  accordinj^'  to  the  nature  and  necessities  of  the  ter- 
rain, from  12  to  LM)  kilometers  as  a  maximum.  The  troops 
should  never  be  rc(iuired  to  make  a  single  march  as  great  as 
:'.()  kilometers,  (except  in  case  of  absolute  necessity. 

In  campaign,  the  marches  should  be  so  regulated  that 
the  men  will  not  be  exposed  to  paludal  emanations.  No 
going  out  before  the  rising  or  after  the  setting  of  the  sun ;  no 
marching  during  the  warm  hours,  which  should  be  devoted 
to  repose;  two  short  intervals — one  from  six  to  nine  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  the  other  from  four  to  six  o'clock  in  the 
evening — ought  to  suttice. 

With  a  view  to  avoiding  the  inconveniences  of  the  fa- 
tigue imposed  by  the  march  in  the  hot  countries,  it  has  been 
suggested  to  mount  the  infantry.  This  was  tried  in  the 
Soudan,  and  was  acknowledged  by  everybody  to  have  cer- 
tainly contributed  to  the  diminution  of  mortality  among  the 
European  troops.  The  horse  and  the  mule  of  Senegal  are 
replaced  in  South  Algeria  by  camels  and  dromedaries.  In 
('ambodia,  in  1SS,5,  elephants  were  utilized  in  default  of  other 
mount. 

l-nfortunately,  circumstances  will  arise  when  the  neces- 
sities of  war  will  imi)0se  the  fornuil  obligation  of  lengthening 
the  route,  increasing  the  load,  and  forestalling  or  prolonging 
the  hours  propitious  for  the  march.  In  this  ease,  the  greatest 
precautions,  always  useful,  will  be  absolutely  imperious. 

The  men  should  have  breakfast  immediately  after  re- 
veille, before  confronting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  enrmi/  above. 
and  the  emanations  from  the  ground,  f]ie  eiuiiiy  hehnv. 

The  ranks  will  be  completely  opened,  in  order  not  to 
transport  parallel  to  the  column  a  bed  of  air  heated  by  bodily 
radiation.  Troops  in  the  hot  countries  rarely  march  in  good 
order  on  account  of  the  condition  of  the  roads;  Indian  tile  is 
often  the  only  disposition  which  can  be  adopted. 


168  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

The  clothing  ^ihould  ha  opeu;  the  outer  clothing  might  be 
taken  off  and  carried  on  the  arms;  the  underclothing,  how- 
>ever,  should  ahvays  be  woni,  as  the  heat  of  the  sun  on  the 
unsheltered  skin,  like  coolness,  is  always  to  be  feared. 

The  poor  mardu-rs,  placed  at  the  head,  will  regulate  the 
march  and  prevent  a  too  rapid  pace. 

The  canteens  should  be  tilled  with  coffee  and  water,  with 
tea,  or  some  acid  drink.  Stopjiing  to  drink  or  to  draw  water 
from  the  ponds  encountered  should  be  absolutely  prohibited. 
In  case  of  rain,  water  may  be  caught  in  the  water-proof 
stretched  over  the  arms;  this  will  also  serve  to  protect  the 
soldier. 

Upon  halting,  it  would  be  better  to  keep  the  men  in  the 
sun  for  a  time  than  to  place  them  immediately  in  the  shade: 
the  difference  in  temperature  might  be  enough  to  chill  them. 
For  the  same  reason,  even  more  here  than  on  the  march,  the 
men  should  be  ])0sitively  forbidden  to  completely  uncover 
themselves. 

It  would  also  be  very  imprudent  to  permit  the  men  to 
lie  on  the  ground  in  the  sun.  The  reverberation  and  action 
lof  the  heat  reflected  from  a  burning  soil  are  the  more  to  be 
fear-ed  the  nearer  the  man's  head  is  to  the  ground. 

This  is  an  observation  made  by  all  soldiers  since  (lenei-al 
Bugeaud:  in  campaign  in  the  hot  countries,  a  man  lying- 
down  will  be  more  exjiosed  to  sun-stroke  than  a  man  on  his 
knees;  the  latter,  than  a  man  standing;  and  this  last,  than  a 
man  on  horseback,  whose  face  is  2.4  meters  from  the  ground. 
During  a  fight,  this  data  may  be  im])ortant  for  the  shar])- 
shooters,  who  are  often  j)laced  in  these  different  ]>ositions. 

If,  in  s]»ite  of  all  these  ]>recauti<uis,  a  man  should  be  sun- 
struck  or  overcome  by  the  heat,  he  should  be  immediately 
placed  under  a  sheltei-,  imjirovised  with  all  haste,  with  his 
head  laised  and  well  {uotectcd  from  the  ground;  the  body 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  'Tropics.  16i> 

and  face  slioiikl  hv  bathed  with  cold  water,  his  limbs  should 
be  stimulated  by  fiictiou,  aud  as  soon  as  consciousness 
begins  to  return,  he  should  be  forced  to  drink  in  small 
draughts. 

In  case  respiration  should  be  suspended,  artificial  respi- 
ration will  be  resorted  to  by  raising  both  arms  of  the  patient 
above  his  head  simultaneously  and  then  lowering  them  along 
the  body,  about  twenty  times  a  minute;  or,  better  still,  by 
making  rhythmical  tractions  of  the  tongue. 

CAMPING. 

]^o  one  is  ignorant  of  the  danger  run  by  armies  obliged  to 
camp  on  unhealthful  ground.  During  the  occupation  of 
Rome,  the  soldiers  changing  garrison  were  not  lodged  under 
tents  upon  their  arrival  at  the  halting-places;  they  were  in- 
stalled for  the  night  in  the  granges,  farms,  sheds,  and  in  all 
disposable  places.  This  is  preferable  hygienically  to  any 
encampment  whatever. 

In  fact,  when  an  army  traverses  a  fever  country,  if 
centers  of  population  exist,  it  ought  to  be  quartered  upon  the 
inhabitants  and  established  in  the  houses  with  a  view  to 
avoiding  a  night  either  in  bivouac  or  under  a  tent,  w-hich 
offers  only  an  insufficient  shelter  from  the  ground  and  the 
mists.  If  there  are  no  centers  of  habitation,  ingenuity  should 
be  taxed  to  create  shelters  for  the  night. 

In  Algeria,  our  soldiers  are  accustomed  to  using  the 
tent.  This  method  of  camping  is  so  common,  in  fact,  that 
each  locality  should  have  a  camping-place  for  passing  troops; 
wiien  exceptional  climatic  conditions  require,  requisition  is 
made  for  cantonments. 

It  should  be  known  that  in  our  tropical  colonies  the  con- 
ditions are  very  different  from  those  of  Algeria,  and  that 
methods  praised  for  the  one  j^lace  are  not  practical  in  the 
other. 


170  Ihjyiene  of  lire  kSoidier  in  (lie  Tropica. 

If  necessary  to  camp,  the  best  .system  of  tent  should  be 
used,  improved,  as  far  as  possibh^  witli  branches  and  toliage. 

The  grtmnd  on  whicli  the  camp  is  to  be  h>cated  should 
never  be  dug  up,  but  only  cleaned  and  prepared  by  fire.  This 
will  be  the  best  way  of  driving  away  insects,  destroying 
the  brushwood,  and  calcining  the  ground,  rendered  thus 
impermeable. 

As  water  is  necessary  for  cleanliness  and  alimentation, 
the  camp  may  prudently  be  established  in  proximity  to  a 
water-course,  to  the  windward  of  marshes,  and  u])on  a  relief 
of  the  terrain,  if  not  upon  an  elevated  i)lace. 

Without  removing  too  much  earth,  trenches  will  be 
traced  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  slopes;  they  will  collect 
the  rain-water  and  i)revent  the  ground  occupied  fi-om  l)ecom- 
ing  wet. 

Kitchens,  washing-phues,  corrals,  and  native  camps  will 
be  phiced  to  windward  of  the  camp  for  Europeans.     Filth, 
(lehris  of  the  kitchen  or  abattoirs,  litter,  etc.,  will  be  incin 
ei-ated  daily. 

It  is  impiacticable  in  the  temporary  camps  to  use  the 
movable  tinettes  so  happily  employed  in  cantcmments  in  Tong- 
King,  Dahomey,  and  Madagascar,  to  jtrevent  infection  and 
the  contamination  of  drinking-watci'.  Arbois  and  screens 
will  then  be  erected  in  confoi-mity  with  the  ministerial  th'- 
cision  of  Atigust  22,  lS,s!>.  The  precautions  there  enjoined 
ai-e  the  metre  im])ortant  because  in  a  march  to  the  front  all 
the  tr()oj)S  will  be  succeeded  ujion  the  same  ground. 

A  failui-e  to  (ibser\('  the  dispositions  so  wisely  pivscribed 
would  risk  infect  iiig  the  camping-]»laces.  especially  if  they 
are  occupied  for  any  considerable  length  of  time. 

Whenever  the  eiu  ampment  is  to  be  of  some  duration,  all 
the  effects  and  bedding  will  be  taken  out  and  aired.  In  the 
absence  of  a  camj)  bed,  one  can  be  made  upon  the  ground  by 
the  aid  of  stiaw  or  hei'bs  covered  with  t  lie  wat<'i'  proof. 


Hytjiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  171 

Tlu'  sick  will  always  be  installed  in  the  nn)st  fa\(>rable 
places  and  sent  to  the  rear  as  soon  as  possible  by  the  means 
])rovided  for  that  pnr[>ose  and  according-  to  the  rnles  adoi)ted. 

HYGIENIC    PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Everything  which  increases  strength  of  resistance,  in- 
clnding  excellent  quarters,  good  food,  well-adapted  clothing 
and  ecpiipment,  abstention  from  all  exaggerated  fatigue  and 
fi-om  all  ovcMwork,  constitute,  and  always  will  constitute,  the 
best  protection  for  troops  in  campaign. 

There  are,  however,  other  means  to  e^mploy  in  order  to 
prevent  certain  endemic  and  epidemic  diseases. 

Hygiene  prevents  paludism,  but  it  is  not  a  useless 
measure  to  have  recourse  to  therapeutics  also,  and  the 
nuunent  seems  to  have  arrived  for  saying  a  word  about  the 
cpiinine  preventive. 

There  would  be  temerity  in  affirming  that  (piinine  em- 
ployed preventively  annihilates  absolutely  the  effects  of 
malaria;  but  it  seems  certain  that  it  greatly  diminishes  the 
severity  of  serious  forms  and  that  it  makes  the  prognosis  of 
the  disease  less  difficult.  In  a  general  way,  it  considerably 
lessens  the  effects  of  paludism.  Its  value  as  a  preventive 
rests  to-day  on  a  number  of  facts  sufficiently  great  and  posi- 
tive. No  testimony  seriously  attributes  to  it  a  danger  or  real 
inconvenience.  In  fact,  it  has  never  been  observed  that  men 
attacked  by  fever  in  spite  of  the  (luinine  administered  pre- 
ventively have  ever  become  refractory  to  the  medicine  when 
tilt'  explicit  signs  api>eared. 

The  results  of  experience  in  the  preventive  administra- 
tion of  (piinine  may  be  thus  summarized:  1.  Diminution  in 
the  number  of  accesses,  which  reappear  only  on  the  seventh, 
fourteenth,  and  twenty-first  days.     2.   Mildness  of  the  at- 


172  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

tacks  affecting  a  legiilar  tvpe.     8.  Rareness  of  pernicious 
attacks,  of  bilious  forms,  and  of  cachexy. 

Before  going  out  in  the  morning  in  a  marshy  country,  a 
(111)  of  black  coffee  and  a  dose  of  quinine  should  be  taken  if  a 
day  of  extraordinary  fatigue  or  considerable  exposure  to  the 
sun  is  foreseen.  In  order  that  the  preventive  quinine  may 
have  a  really  efficacious  action,  it  should  be  taken  in  a  dose 
of  at  least  .3  of  a  gram,  and  in  certain  cases  it  should  be 
increased  to  .5  of  a  gram  and  even  .75  of  a  gram. 

The  diminution  in  the  effects  of  i)aludism  is  appreciable 
only  when  the  sulj)hate  of  quinine  is  administered,  not  in 
daily,  almost  homeopathic  and  insufficient  doses,  but  in 
relatively  large  doses,  twice  a  week  or  when  special  circum- 
stances require. 

During  the  Madagascar  expedition  of  1895,  quinine  was 
distributed  to  the  men  in  doses  of  from  .1  to  .2  of  a  gram 
.during  the  first  four  days  of  the  week.  In  spite  of  this 
measure,  the  fever  attacked  our  soldiers  cruelly.  It  must 
not  be  concluded  from  this,  however,  that  the  quinine  pre- 
ventive is  useless;  it  can  only  be  said  that  the  doses  were 
insufficient,  or,  rather,  that  the  poisoning  Avas  too  violent. 

Alcoholism  is  the  more  formidable  because  it  acts  upon 
the  organs  weakened  by  heat  and  imi)edes  digestion,  thus 
aggravating  certain  diseases,  such  as  paludism  and  dysen- 
tery. The  rum  of  the  ration  ought  to  be  suppressed  and  ic- 
placed  by  tea,  which  would  also  make  it  nece^ssary  to  boil  the 
water.  The  English  have  profited  on  several  expeditions  by 
the  su]»pression  of  rum.  The  dangers  of  absinthe  and  of 
adulterated  li(piors  are  too  well  known  and  to  fatal  in  war 
not  to  justify  the  most  rigorous  severity  against  the  dealeis. 

The  ]ireventi(Mi  of  venereal  diseases,  which  ;n-e  oiic  of  the 
l)lagues  of  the  native  i)0])n]ations,  (jught  to  be  ;in  object  of 
constant  Mttention.     It  would  be  useful  to  establish  a  dispen- 


Hijgiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  173 

saiy.  \'enei-ea'l  diseases  should  not  excuse  men  from  work  or 
from  taking-  part  in  operations  unless  they  are  of  exceptional 
gravity.  The  patients  kept  in  the  cantonment  should  be 
"narrowly  watched  to  prev(^nt  a  propagation  of  the  disease. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  variola. 
The  health  service  will  be  provided  with  a  quantity  of  vaccine 
sufficient  to  revaccinate  all  the  men.  They  will  be  re  vacci- 
nated at  the  time  of  embarking  or  during  the  course  of  the 
vo3'age.  The  operation  should  take  place  in  time  to  allow 
the  pustules  to  cicatrize  before  the  disembarkation. 

To  prevent  the  importation  of  cholera  or  yellow  fever, 
care  should  be  taken  to  organize  a  special  sanitary  police  in 
the  region  occupied  by  the  troops.  Ships  will  be  examined 
and  a  lazaret,  provided  with  disinfection  apparatus,  should 
receive  the  sick  who  are  contaminated. 

In  countries  where  tetanus  is  frequent,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  carefully  disinfect  all  wounds  and  to  use  hypodermic 
injections  with  circumspection. 

If  all  the  measures  we  have  just  enumerated  be  scrupu- 
lously studied  and  minutely  applied,  the  health  of  the  troops 
will  be  greatly  profited. 


174  Hygiene  of  fhe  tioldier  in  the  Tropics. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Hygienic  Principles  of  a  Colonial  Army. 

To  one  wlio  s(M^s  things  as  tliev  are,  colonial  hygiene  is 
in  no  Avay  opj.osed  to  niilitaiy  iiiTeiests.  On  the  eoiitrarj, 
each  jtage  of  our  books  sho^vs  liow  nianv  lives  have  been 
saved  by  the  sound  application  of  i)iincii)l(^s  still  too  often 
ignored,  and  how  ex})ensive  have  been  the  mistakes. 

In  France,  the  jirobleni  of  the  organization  of  a  colonial 
army,  so  long  discussed,  seems  upon  the  ])oint  of  being 
solved.  It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  the  hygienic  sid(.' 
will  be  subordinated  to  other  considerations,  and  that  the 
new  work  will  be  defectively  based. 

To  do  it  w<^l],  new  expenses  are  involved,  and  the  com- 
pensation to  be  i-ealized  is  not  sutticiently  renicndKMed. 
Without  si)eaking  of  the  economy  resulting  from  a  limita- 
tion of  rei)atriation  to  strict  necessity,  and  from  a  diminution 
in  diseases  and  theii-  consequences — the  human  cai)ital  is 
well  worth  sonielhing.  In  a  country  like  ouis.  whei-e  it  tends 
to  become  more  and  more  rare,  it  must  be  husbanded.  It 
should  Im-  icmembei'ed  that  nothing  is  so  costly  to  nations, 
as  to  individuals,  as  discusc,  if  it  is  not  ilmlh! 

W'c  establish,  as  a  juinciple.  what  may  appear  a  banal- 
ity, that  lh(^  colonial  aiiuy  ought  to  be  organized  exclusively 
foi-  llic  protection  and  defense  of  oui-  colonies.  The  crews 
of  the  fleet  have  not  been  created  to  tiiilit  on  land,  but  to  man 
the  sliijis.  It  is  essential  thai  t  his  aiuiy  be  constituted  witli 
a  \iew  to  the  occujiation  ot  our  colonial  domain,  its  defense, 
oi  its  extension.  This  should  be  its  princijtal  object.  How- 
ever, we  jii-esume  it  would  be  difticult  foi-  the  country  to 
understand,  if,  in  a  continental  war,  the  oiilx  elements  of  our 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  175 

aniiies  expeiieiu-ed  in  campaijiii,  and  conseciuently  possess- 
inj",'  in  a  liij;li  decree  the  (pialities  desired  to  confront  the  ter- 
rible dangers  of  our  futnie  wais,  should  not  be  s(  nt  to  the 
frontier,  where  the  fate  of  the  nation  ini^lit  be  decided,  if 
they  were  at  the  time  available. 

In  case  of  Enrop«'an  contlajiration  we  could  certainly 
never  have  too  many  troops  in  the  colonies.  In  view  of  such 
an  eventuality,  our  foreign  possessions  should  be  stionj^ly 
garrisoned  in  times  of.jteace.  In  case  of  trouble  in  Europe, 
it  would  be  unwise  to  send  troojjs  to  the  colonies,  for,  if  we 
are  masters  of  the  sea,  our  cidonies  will  have  little  to  fear 
from  enterprises  of  the  enemy;  in  the  contrary  case,  all  re- 
infoicemcnts  sent  would  be  seriously  comi»romised.  The 
greater  part  of  these  elite  troojts  should  therefore  be  imme- 
diately utilized  at  the  frontier. 

The  colonial  army,  having  a  special  end,  should  have  a 
special  organization,  and  the  soldier,  who  is  the  ])rincipal 
part  of  the  machine,  ought  to  be  sjiecialized;  his  career 
should  be  that  of  a  specialist,  and  he  should  be  a  ])icked  uuin 
in  the  full  mi^aniug  of  the  word. 

Everything  in  our  institutions  of  to-day  is  opposed  to 
this  view  and  tends  to  bend  ninv  creations  to  the  common 
level.  Thus  fi-om  a  sentiment  as  human  as  it  is  patriotic,  a 
single  gun-shot  caniu)t  now  be  heard  without  an  immediate 
declaration  on  the  part  of  every  soldier  that  he  is  ready  for 
action:  each' one  wishes  to  take  part  in  the  struggle,  to  con- 
front tlu>  dangers,  and  to  derive  the  advantages.  Where 
glory  is  t(j  be  con(piered,  there  is  some  for  all! 

The  error  of  all  this  is  manifest;  in  a  time  of  progress 
and  of  extreme  sjjecialization,  the  ])rofessioual  workman 
must  be  always  true  to  his  sjiecialty,  and  the  chosen  appara- 
tus adapted  to  the  effect  to  be  produced.    To  everiione  hi^  trade. 

Now,  we  affirm  that  nothing  in  Eur()])ean  waifare,  or  in 


176  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

its  pi-eparatioii,  fits  the  eoiitinental  aiiiiy  for  tropical  expe- 
ditions; moreover,  the  military  life  aud  operations  of  our 
troops  in  Algiers  bear  small  resemblance  to  what  these 
ought  to  be  in  the  colonies. 

The  glorious  part  played  by  the  troops  of  the  Marine  at 
I>azeilles,  in  the  armies  of  the  Xorth  and  East,  proves,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  the  soldier  who  has  campaigned  in  the 
colonies  is  adapted  to  make  war  upon  all  battle  fields.  Tlie 
reciprocal  is  not  true.  So,  we  believe  it  is  right  to  demand 
an  autonomous  army,  adapted  to  its  special  functions,  and 
we  maintain  that  if  the  constitution  of  the  colonial  troops 
is  above  all  a  hygienic  creation,  its  recruitment  ought  to  be 
absolutely  by  selection. 

This  view  has  been  taken  by  the  English,  the  Dutch, 
and  the  Spanish,  and  it  cannot  be  said,  especially  of  the  first, 
that  they  have  not  succeeded  better  thaii  ourselves  in  the 
conduct  of  their  expeditions.  If  the  English  use  their  Britan- 
nic regiments  in  their  colonies  other  than  India,  it  is  because 
theirs  is  an  essentially  colonial  army,  by  its  voluntary  enlist- 
ment, its  organization,  its  traditions,  and  the  marvelous 
adaptation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  to  new   surroundings. 

It  is  sufficient,  moreover,  to  see  with  what  scrupulous' 
care  the  English  form  their  European  detachments  for  a 
foreign  expedition,  to  be  convinced  that  with  them  the  prin- 
ciple. The  right  man  in  the  right  place,  is  the  chief  concern. 

The  flag  of  France  has  always  been  ghtriously  defended; 
but  the  sacrifices  have  often  greatly  surpassed  the  limits  of 
necessity;  somethimes  they  have  even  been  disprojtorfioned 
to  the  end  in  view  and  the  results  obtained. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  determine  what  should  be 
done  to  diminish  the  bloody  tithe  paid  by  F"rance  for  the  pro- 
tection and  extension  of  the  colonial  domain,  and  what  eco- 
nomic measui'cs  will  coiiipeiisiite  for  the  n<'W  expenses  iiii- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  177 

posed  by  the  rational   organization  of  a    veritable  colonial 
army. 

§  I.     Becrvitinij. 

We  have  seen  what  enemies  the  colonial  soldier  has  to 
combat,  the  extraordinary  fatigues  which  sometimes  have  to 
be  endured,  and  how  necessary  it  is,  in  spite  of  all  the  pre- 
cautions taken  to  protect  him,  that  he  should  possess  the 
maximum  degree  of  physical  resistance,  for  at  certain  times 
he  will  have  no  other  safeguard. 

Age. — The  tirst  condition  to  exact  from  the  colonial  sol- 
dier is  sufficient  age.  If  too  young,  he  is  a  ready  prey  to  all 
tropical  diseases.  F]xpeijence  shows  that  an  insufficient  bod- 
ily development  unfits  him  to  bear  the  fatigues  of  an  expedi- 
tion. If  he  is  robust,  he  will  resist,  perhaps,  for  several  years, 
but  will  end  by  succumbing  before  he  is  30. 

In  England,  a  soldier  must  be  21  j-ears  old  and  have  a 
year  of  service  before  being  sent  to  the  colonies;  he  must  be 
22  before  he  is  allowed  to  form  part  of  a  column  there. 

In  France,  we  have  had  soldiers  of  ll»  and  even  of  18 
years  of  age  in  the  colonies  in  recent  years;  many  of  them 
have  never  again  seen  their  native  land!  Should  21  or  22 
years  be  accepted  as  the  limit?  Wv  answer  formally:  Nei- 
ther the  one  nor  the  other,  unless  great  difficulty  should  be 
encountered  in  recruiting  with  a  higher  age  limit.  Indeed, 
in  our  opinion,  soldiers  younger  than  23  should  not  be  sent 
to  the  colonies.  It  is  only  at  that  age  that  there  is  a  cer- 
tainty of  complete  development. 

M.  Morache  goes  farther  in  fixing  the  inferior  age  limit 
for  the  colonies  at  25.  According  to  him,  the  maximum  of 
resistance  to  fatigue  and  to  morbid  causes  is  found  Ifctween 
the  ages  of  25  and  35. 

From  what  precedes,  we  consider  it  necessary  to  lav 
down  the  principle  that  soldiers  of  the  colonial  armv  should 


178  Hygiene  of  ilie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

uot  be  sent  to  the  eolouies  until  after  they  are  22  years  old; 
they  could  then  have  finished  a  certain  number  of  years  of 
service  in  France  or  in  Algeria.  They  would  thus  be  doubly 
tempered  by  age  and  by  military  service.  High  pay  and 
retirement  after  fifteen  years"  service,  with  proportionate 
advantages  for  those  whose  health  would  permit  a  service 
of  only  a  third  or  two-thirds  of  that  period,  would  be  sufli- 
cient  to  attract  and  retain  the  soldiers. 

We  would  thus  imitate  the  English  in  the  Indies,  the 
Spaniards  in  the  Philippines,  and  the  Dutch  in  their  Asiatic 
possessions. 

Up  to  32  years  of  age,  the  enlistment  would  permit  every 
soldier  to  have  finished  at  least  one  period  of  service  in 
France,  all  being  calculated  so  that  the  retirements  could 
be  made  before  the  age  of  45. 

Nevertheless,  a  soldier  who  is  40  years  old  and  has  uot 
attained  a  non-commissioned  grade  should  be  placed  in  pro- 
portional retirement,  whatever  be  his  time  of  colonial  ser- 
vice. One  grows  old  quickly  in  the  colonies;  soldiers  over  40 
should  not  be  in  the  ranks;  even  that  age  is  an  extrerue 
limit.  The  most  favorable  period  will  always  be  fi'om  23 
to  35  years,  and  it  should  be  surpassed  only  in  exceptional 
cases.  The  old  soldier  is  not,  and  never  has  been,  what  he 
has  been  considered.  The  grognards  of  Austerlitz  and  of 
Waterloo  were  volunteers  of  the  wars  of  the  Kevolution  and 
many  of  the  soldiers  of  the  Old  (iuard  had  not  passed  30 
years!  If  they  were  old,  it  was  not  by  reason  of  age.  but 
because  they  had  lived  much  war;  tliey  had  seen  so  much 
of  it: 

In  the  colonies,  even  more  than  in  Eurojjc,  the  incon- 
veniences of  an  age  too  advanced  are  the  same  as  those 
of  an  age  loo  young.  Old  soldiers,  as  we  understand  the  term, 
are  exccllcin.  but  soldiers  loo  old  in  i/rars  arc  worthless. 


Hygiene  of  ilie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  179 

Condition  of  Health. — Is  it  necessary  to  say  that  every 
colonial  soldier  should  jtossess  not  only  the  physical  qualifi- 
cations necessary  to  the  soldier  of  the  nietro})olitan  army, 
but  should  also  be  in  excellent  health? 

A  medical  connnission,  and  not  one  surgeon  alone, 
should  examine  the  men  to  be  enlisted  or  reenlisted,  and  it 
should  be  the  same  for  the  non-commissioned  officers.  Out- 
side of  the  ])orts,  this  commission  could  meet  at  the  chief 
place  in  each  department. 

The  medical  leaf  of  the  soldier's  hand-book,  containing 
everything  of  imjjortance  connected  with  his  health  during 
his  first  term  of  service  in  the  active  army,  would  then  be 
of  the  greatest  aid.  The  health  service  as  well  as  the  admin- 
istration would  derive  great  advantage  from  consulting  it. 

Those  enlisted  and  reenlisted  should  lie  exempt  from 
every  constitutional  defect:  they  should  be  affected  neither 
with  consumption,  nor  rheumatism,  nor  alcoholism,  nor  be 
convalescents  from  any  serious  malady  whatever. 

We  have  seen  why  a  predisposition  to  tuberculosis 
should  be  inquired  into;  in  si)ite  of  Boudin's  theory,  that 
disease  is  a  sure  auxiliary  of  paludism  and  vice  rersa. 

Dyspeptics,  the  obese,  those  with  rheumatism  and  cardi- 
algia  should  be  eliminated.  They  are  futuje  good-for- 
nothings. 

It  is  known  how  (juickly  the  digestive  functi(ms  are 
influenced  by  a  heat  of  long  duration.  The  liver  and  the 
stomach,  then,  should  be  in  excellent  condition.  Even  a  light 
attack  of  these  organs  is  weakening.  The  repair  of  the  tis- 
sues is  slower,  the  destruction  of  the  organic  poisons  is  more 
difficult,  especially  if  the  liver,  "that  great  chemist  of  the 
system,''  as  Ch.  Richet  has  said,  is  no  longer  the  seat  of  excre- 
mentitial  activity.  The  de])loiable  tendency  of  those  having 
rheumatism  to  become  cold  is  also  known,  and  we  have  seen 


180  Hi/fjienr  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

that  one  grows  cold  in  the  Tropics  quicker  thau  anywhere 
else,  because  there  is  always  an  increased  propensity  to 
uncover  on  account  of  the  heat.  In  these  conditions,  a  light 
breeze  rising  after  a  stilting  calm  causes  a  brus(iue  modifi- 
cation of  the  hygrometric  condition  of  the  air  sufficiently 
great  to  produce  great  variations  in  the  evaporation  from 
the  skin.  It  is  during  the  winter  that  these  transitions  are 
most  frequent,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  winter  sea- 
son is  so  unfavorable  to  those  who  have  rheumatism. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  mistrust  men  subject  to  local 
hyperhidrosis,  slight  but  fre(iuent  muscular  jiains,  head- 
aches, nose-bleed,  fluent  hemorrhoids,  abundant  deposits  of 
urates  in  the  urine,  habitual  eczematous  eruptions — -in  a 
word,  to  the  little  things  making  uj)  the  small  change  of 
arthritis. 

Cardiac  hypertrojthies,  whatever  the  cause,  even  from 
growth  and  Independent  of  all  valvular  lesion,  should  be 
regarded  as  discpialifying  for  colonial  service.  Experience 
teaches  that  men  thus  aff(H-ted,  as  well  as  those  addicted  to 
the  use  of  alcohol,  are  the  first  victims  of  sun-stroke. 

Observation  has  shown  that  one  does  not  become  accli- 
mated to  fever  any  mor(^  than  to  dysentery  or  hepatitis;  that, 
on  the  contrary,  one  becomes  the  more  subject  to  these  affec- 
tions the  more  the  systcan  has  been  pre])ared  by  former 
attacks,  for  no  "vaccination"  is  known  wliicli  creates  inimu 
nity  from  them.  That  is  to  say,  every  contirmed  victim  of 
paludism,  every  former  sufferer  from  dysentery,  every  man 
having  an  enlarged  liver  or  spleen,  should  hnd  no  place  in 
the  colonial  contingents. 

By  making  it  possible  for  the  olficers  and  surgeons  to 
look  for  and  ascertain  organic  defects  or  the  presence  of 
morbid  geinis,  and  by  obliging  the  soldier  to  sei  ve  at  least 
two  veais  before  admitting  him  to  the  first  I'eenlistuient.  it 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  181 

would-be  jiossible  to  obtain  that  itM-niitiueiit  by  selection 
which  is  indispensable  in  the  organization  of  a  Rood  colonial 
army.  Then  the  anomalies  so  fi-eiinent  under  the  system  now 
in  vogue  would  be  seen  no  longer.  Young  volunteers  enlist- 
ed for  five  years  are  now  permitted  to  reenlist  for  another 
five  years,  and  are  thus  found,  at  the  age  of  18|,  bound 
to  the  service  for  more  than  nine  i/mrs.  It  is  still  more  regret- 
table that  young  men  of  this  catt  gory,  Avith  more  than  eight 
years  to  serve,  should  be  invalided  for  atfections  the  germs  of 
which  existed  at  the  time  of  their  enlistment  and  which  have 
developed  in  the  first  years  of  service.* 

Moral  Conditions. — To  the  conditions  of  physical  vigor 
represented  by  suitable  age  and  good  health,  are  joined 
others  of  a  ditferent  nature,  but  also  indisjiensable.  Mens 
Sana  in  corpore  sano,  in  the  broadest  sense,  could  never  be  bet- 
ter applied  than  here  to  dejjict  the  union  of  the  physical  and 
moral  qualitiei*  which  should  b«^  possessed  by  the  future 
colonial  soldier. 

Every  man  serving  in  the  colonies  should  be  a  rolnnteer, 
a  man  enlisted  or  reenlisted  of  his  own  free  will,  and  on 
that  account  naturally  w^ell  paid.  That  is  what  makes  the 
strength  of  the  English  and  Dutch  ccdonial  armies. 

Voluntary  enlistment  and  sufficient  age  give  the  men  of 
the  Foreign  Legion  that  strength  of  resistance,  that  ardor, 
which  makes  them  such  marvelous  soldiers,  especially  in 
campaign.  "The  Legion,'  says  M.  de  Villebois-Mareuil,  ''has 
a  double  character:  men  are  enlisted  up  to  the  age  of  40;  it 
is  composed  of  soldiers  by  trade,  to  whom  the  career  of  arms 

*By  a  decision  dated  the  15th  of  May,  1897,  the  Minister  of 
Marine  has  fortunately  applied  a  restrictive  measure  to  the  provis- 
ions of  the  decree  of  the  4th  of  August,  1894,  which  authorized  such 
a  state  of  things;  under  this  decision,  the  first  recnlistment  is  limited 
to  three  years.  This  makes  it  possible  for  a  man,  six  months  after 
his  enlistment,  to  bind  himself  to  service  for  only  seven  and  a  half 
in  place  of  nine  and  a  half  years. 


182  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

is  a  refuge,  the  daily  bread,  often  a  title  of  naturalization — 
that  is  to  say,  for  a  time  at  least,  a  veritable  profession.  In 
this  hybrid  organization,  which  a  man  enters  masked,  with- 
out paper  of  identity  or  of  nationality,  without  extract  from 
judicial  pigeon-holes,  without  anything  which  recommends 
him  or  which  speaks  of  his  past — there  is  a  strange  mixture; 
but  it  may  be  said  that  from  this  indefinable  whole  is  evolved 
an  energy  of  iron,  an  instinctive  passion  for  adventure,  an 
astonishing  fertility  of  initiative,  a  supreme  disdain  for 
death,  all  the  sublime  originalities  of  raaitial  virtues." 

In  spite  of  this  fine  portrait,  which  is  a  very  good  one  of 
the  legionaire,  we  do  not  believe  it  represents  the  prototype 
of  the  colonial  soldier. 

Some  soldiers  of  the  Legion  are  too  old,  others  too  diffi 
cult  to  manage.  Sublime  under  fire,  stoical  in  the  presence 
of  danger,  endowed  with  an  enornu)us  resistance  to  fatigue, 
they  are  the  first  soldiers  of  the  world  foi-  a  strong  blow  or 
for  an  expedition  of  short  duration;  but  their  chiefs  know 
how  hard  it  is  for  them  to  bear  garrison  life  and  the  monot- 
ony of  daily  service,  and  how  much  discipline  costs  them, 
for  they  possess  to  a  high  degree  the  faults  of  their  generous 
qualities;  love  of  the  unknown,  of  the  new,  often  leads  tlu^se 
men  into  strange  adventures,  especially  as  nothing  exct'jtt 
the  battle-field  attaches  them  to  th(^  flag  they  seive  so  hero- 
ically; and  tin-  adniinisti-ation  which  has  at  its  disjtosal.  in  a 
distant  colony,  only  such  elements  as  this,  in  face  of  the 
natives,  njight  one  day  find  itself  in  a  situati(»n  as  annoying 
as  critical. 

In  the  colonies,  moi-e  than  in  Eui'op(».  men  of  (lood  con- 
dvcl,  upon  whom  the  cliief  can  always  count,  are  needed  in 
the  I'anks.  Now,  it  is  iuip(»ssiltle  to  trust,  in  ordinaiv  times, 
men  who  see  in  colonial  life  only  the  means  of  escaping  the 
exigencies  of   Knropean   discipline.      Inclined   to   violate   all 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Trovics.  183 

ordeis,  hyoienic  rules  will  not  stop  them,  and  their  iudocilitj 
will  often  expose  them,  as  well  as  their  commanders,  to  the 
most  eriiel  disappointments. 

Men  of  bad  character  durino-  their  sojourn  in  France, 
especially  drunkards,  ought  to  be  rigorously  discarded.  In 
a  hot  country,  the  habits  of  a  w^ell-regulated  life,  of  sobriety, 
are  indispensable  to  the  maintenance  of  discipline. 

Thus,  in  certain  circumstances,  the  disciplinaires  have 
rendered  service  under  fire;  but  they  have  a  resistance  much 
infeiior  to  that  of  the  other  white  troops.  We  have  seen 
that  in  Senegal,  where  their  mortality  was  triple  that  of  the 
other  troops.  It  is  true  they  have  been  employed  in  certain 
colonies  on  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  roads;  it 
may  doubtless  be  said,  also,  that  they  occupy  unhealthy  posts 
in  place  of  free  soldiers.  Where  is  the  advantage?  Have  we 
not  natives  for  the  last  service?  If  the  disci plinn ires  lost 
three  times  as  many  men  as  the  other  European  corps  in 
Senegal,  they  had  a  proportionate  number  of  sick;  they  are 
then  very  expensive,  and  it  is  diflicult  to  understand  why 
the  State  thus  maintains  in  service,  at  great  expense,  troops 
which  are  worth  less  than  either  the  infanterie  de  marinr  or 
the  natives  under  tire,  and  are  very  far  from  the  worth  of 
these  in  the  ordinary  conditions  of  colonial  life. 

The  place  of  these  men  excluded  from  the  Army  ought 
to  be  in  the  military  workshops  of  France,  Algeria,  and  th( 
colonies,  and  not  in  the  ranks  of  the  armed  contingents.  In 
the  campaign  in  Tapper  Senegal,  in  1886  and  1887,  the  mortal- 
itv  among  t\\e  diseiplinnires  was  very  great. 

As  for  recruiting  the  colonial  soldiers  among  the  vaga- 
bonds, the  liabitual  criminals,  it  is  to  be  seen  from  what  pre- 
cedes how^  little  that  is  to  be  thought  of.  Here  to  morally 
defective  (pialities  is  joined  a  physical  debility  the  more 
acceptuated  in  the  case  of  these  individuals  by  life  in  the 


184  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

prisous  where  they  have  usually  beeu  coufined.  Anyone  who 
has  seen  a  convoy  of  c-iiniinals  in  Xew  Caledonia  knows  that 
among  these  worn-out  men  theie  is  no  longer  either  activity 
or  energy.  The  climate  would  (juickly  overcome  these  mis- 
erable creatures,  who  are  fitter  subjects  for  the  asylum  than 
for  the  prison  or  the  barracks. 

We  insist,  with  Doctor  ^Nlaurel,  u])on  the  necessity  of 
h.aving  in  the  colonial  army,  from  to])  to  bottom,  a  recruit- 
ment by  selection  in  I'cgard  to  moral  and  intellectual  quali- 
ties. The  functions  of  initiative  and  responsibility  of  the 
oflficers  and  non-commissioned  officers  should  not  be  ignored. 
As  to  the  soldiers,  their  attitude  towards  the  natives  should 
be  a  worthy  one  and  their  conduct  should  be  irreproachable. 
They  are  not  sent  to  the  colonics  to  endanger  our  inHuence, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  to  contribute  to  its  extension. 

Conditions  of  T.ace. — It  has  been  thought  that  men  of  the 
warm  countries  of  the  south  of  Europe  were  more  apt  to  sui»- 
port  the  intertropical  climates,  as  trojtical  anjiemia  has  long 
been  considered  a  thermic  anjpmia.  Certain  facts  seem  to 
justify  this  hypothesis.  Abscess  of  th*'  liver  is  twice  as  com 
moil  among  the  French  of  the  North  as  among  those  of  the 
South.  Thdvenot  has  observed  that  yellow  fever  attacks 
men  of  the  North  in  the  pro])ortion  of  five  to  one  of  the 
South. 

Is  it  true  that  the  appearance  of  tro]iical  an;emia  is 
slower  among  the  Southerners?  It  would  be  bettei-.  like 
Navarre,  to  attiibute  their  greater  enduiance,  their  faculty 
of  resistance  to  disease,  to  Iheir  habitual  solwiety:  when 
drinkers,  the  Soulherners  resist  liot  climates  no  bettei-  than 
the  others 

In  another  manner,  an  i<lea  may  be  formed  ot  the  influ- 
ence of  alcoholism  upon  t  lie  ]>ro]»oiiioiial  mortality  of  men  of 
different  regions  of  France,  of  dilTereiit  manners  and  habits. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  185 

wliile  submitted  to  the  same  kind  of  life  and  tlie  same  work. 
Some  interesting   observations   may    be   made   by   con- 
sidering the  mortality  among  those  entering  the  Navy  from 
the  French  littoral,  from  1S91  to  1805: 

Algeria  and  Corsica Mortality     2.20  per  1000 

Mediterranean  littoral Mortality     6.52  per  1000 

Paris  and  the  North  littoral Mortality     7.10  per  1000 

Region  of  the  Normandy  coasts.  .  .Mortality     9.30  per  1000 

Region  of  the  Southwest Mortality  10.40  i)er  1000 

Brittany Mortality  13.20  per  1000 

The  difference  between  the  Corsicans  and  Provencals, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Bretons,  on  the  other,  is  striking. 

The  habits  of  men  have  an  intluence  on  mortality  much 
more  than  the  place  they  come  from.  It  would  also  be  better 
to  take  into  account  the  temperament  of  the  individual  than 
his  place  of  origin.  According  to  Corre,  the  major  part  of 
the  European  elements  of  the  colonial  army  should  be  re- 
cruited among  the  dark-complexioned;  a  fair  man  now  and 
then  presents  a  fine  appearance  of  physical  vigor,  but  to  sup- 
port the  fatigues  of  the  service  his  system  needs  a  too  heavy 
ration  of  meat.  It  is  to  be  observed,  moreover,  that  the  Eng- 
lish in  India  are  more  often  attacked  by  hepatitis  in  all 
degrees  than  the  Spaniards  in  Cuba  and  the  Antilles. 

In  the  question  which  now  occupies  us,  that  of  race  is 
one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  conditions. 

Is  the  acclimatization  of  the  European  in  the  inter- 
tropical countries  p<»ssible?  In  any  a  se  it  is  not  easy  and  re- 
quires great  effort.  In  tropical  countries,  the  European  can  tive 
ontij  in  a  weakened  state.  Lind  says:  "The  men  may  be  likened 
to  vegetables  transplanted  in  foreign  soil,  where  they  can  be 
preserved  and  acclimated  only  by  extraordinary  care." 

Acclnnatization  is  the  ordeal  to  which  the  system  is  sub- 
jected  and   with   which   it   pays  the  ex])enses  of  becoming 


186  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  flic  Tropics. 

accustomed  to  the  hot  coimtry.  All  the  new  climatic  condi- 
tions of  the  tropical  countries,  to  which  must  often  be  joined 
a  defective  condition  of  the  soil  and  of  the  localities  inhab- 
ited, tend  to  modify  the  physiological  functions  of  the  new 
arrival.  A  man  who  is  careful  supports  the  meteorological 
change  easily  enough;  the  telluric  influences  alone  are  a 
formidable  danger. 

This  practically  coincides  with  what  Felix  Jacquot  and 
Dutrouleau  have  said:  "In  the  various  countries,  two  con- 
ditions are  encountered:  the  first,  irremovable,  resulting 
from  the  climatological  surroundings;  the  other,  accidental 
and  more  or  less  removable;  for  example,  paludal  conditions. 
The  European  is  acclimated  to  the  first,  becoming  like  the 
natives,  who  bear  them  more  or  less  easily;  it  is  only  wath 
great  difficulty  that  he  is  acclimated  to  the  second.''  New- 
comers, whether  Europeans  or  natives,  pay  their  tribute  to 
the  poison  of  the  marsh,  with  the  difference  that  the  first, 
debilitated  by  the  climate,  aie  more  accessible  to  every 
morbific  cause. 

The  Caucasian  race  has  succeeded  in  acclimating  itself 
in  many  of  the  countries  of  the  torrid  zone.  Where  it  has 
not  been  able  to  implant  itself,  the  obstacle  has  been  the  en- 
demic diseases  born  of  the  soil.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the 
FrcMich  are  not  acclimated  in  the  Antilles.  The  emaucii»a- 
tion  of  the  blacks,  by  diminishing  the  fortunes,  has  done 
more  than  to  retard  European  immigration,  a  numl>er  of 
families  having  abandoned  the  colony  and  i-eturued  to 
France. 

It  has  been  seen  how  the  Spaniards  have  acclimated 
themselves  in  Cuba  and  in  the  Greater  Antilles,  where  the 
<lim;it  ic  conditions  are  the  same  as  in  the  FrcMicli  and  English 
Antilles.  The  bii-ths  there  are  more  numerous  than  the 
deaths;  fecundity  is  greater  than  in   Europe.     Aeclimatiza- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics-  187 

tion  is  made  by  selection — that  is,  by  the  elimination  of  all 
those  unsuited  to  the  climate.  Is  not  that  a  proof  that  the 
European  is  capable  of  being  acclimatized  there? 

It  would  be  wrong  to  claim  that  no  acclimatization  or 
naturalization  is  possible  unless  the  emigrant  can  work  the 
soil  with  impunity.  This  objection  is  answered,  on  the  one 
hand,  by  the  agricultural  colonies  of  Brazil,  and  on  the  other, 
by  the  fact  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  the  Tropics  in 
order  to  suffer  from  the  emanations  from  freshly  removed 
soil:  fever  caused  by  clearing  the  ground  is  common  to  all 
countries;  it  is  only  more  severe  in  tropical  countries,  and  we 
have  seen  that  it  also  attacks  the  natives. 

Blacks  and  Europeans  are  equally  sensible  to  dysentery 
and  hepatitis  and  never  become  immune  to  them. 

Both  pay  their  tribute  to  yellow  fever;  a  former  attack, 
however,  renders  the  individual  immune;  and  a  series  of  at- 
tacks gives  immunity  to  a  race,  for  a  time  at  least,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  negros  of  Senegal  and  Sierra-Leone.  If  the 
Houssa  blacks  were  transported  to  Senegambia  at  the  time  of 
an  epidemic,  they  would  no  doubt  be  attacked,  because  they 
are  not  immune  to  yellow  fever.  This  has  only  too  often 
been  the  case  when  the  coolies  of  India  have  been  transported 
to  (iuiana. 

It  is  seen  that  the  white  race  is  not  more  disfavored  than 
the  Asiatic  and  African  races  in  regard  to  tropical  endemo- 
epidemics.  It  would  even  seem  that  the  European  is  the 
most  cosmopolitan  of  men;  but  that  does  not  mean  that  he 
can  be  transported  with  impunity  to  no  matter  what  part  of 
the  world.  There  are  unhealthy  countries  which  should  b.^ 
interdicted  to  him  until  they  are  rendered  healthy,  and  for 
this  purpose  native  manual-labor — above  all,  locaj  manual 
labor — should  always  be  reserved. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  not  rare  to  find  intertropical  countries 


188  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

where  tlie  European  can  live  several  years  without  dauger, 
by  the  aid  of  a  wise  hygiene,  and  where  the  colonial  army 
may  become  a  nursery  of  colonists.  For  that  purpose,  it 
would  be  sufficient  to  ameliorate  the  (.'ondition  of  the  non- 
commissioned officers  and  soldiers,  to  treat  them  as  the  Eng- 
Ii^;h  and  Dutch  treat  their  colonial  soldiers,  in  the  Indies  and 
in  Java,  by  permitting  marriage  and  by  giving  a  renewable 
leave,  after  a  certain  length  of  service,  to  those  of  excellent 
conduct  who  would  undertake  to  settle  in  the  colony  in  which 
they  were  serving.* 

§  II.     Organization. 

It  is  not  rare  to  hear  it  said  that  it  is  useless  to  create  a 
colonial  army;  that  it  is  sufficient  to  organize  it,  inasmuch  as 
that  army  already  exists.  It  is  also  said  that  it  would  be  for 
the  best  if,  confonnably  to  the  military  laws,  the  Marine 
should  organize,  command,  administer,  care  for,  and  pay  its 
troops  wheiever  they  may  be  found,  in  France,  in  the  colo- 
nies, and  in  foreign  countries.  From  an  administrative 
standpoint  this  is  ]»erfectly  correct;  from  a  liygicnc  stand- 
point it  is  not  sufficient. 

As  long  as  nothing  is  done  to  recruit  the  constituent 
elements  of  that  organization;  as  long  as  it  is  impossible  to 
judiciously  select  Ihe  men  to  form  the  colonial  army;  as  long 
•as  soldiers  sent  to  the  colonies  are  limited  to  those  who  are 
too  young  or  too  weak — France  will  ])ossess  regiments  be- 
yond the  seas,  but  she  will  not  have  the  instrument  indis- 
pensable to  the  economic  expansion  of  her  colonial  |)ower. 

*It  has  been  thought  that  our  Senegalese  and  Houssa  tirailleurs, 
who  have  been,  as  is  known,  an  excellent  instrument  in  the  con- 
quest of  Madagascar,  might  advantageously  become  an  instrumpnt  of 
colonization  not  leas  valuable.  The  Chinese  and  Annamites  make 
excellent  colonists  wherever  they  go.  -We  think  it  would  be  well. 
in  the  interest  of  colonization,  to  favor  this  kind  of  expansion,  in 
order  to  show  the  way  to  the  European  colonists. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  189 

We  liave  ebtablished   the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  to 
make  a  good  colonial  soldier: 

1.  To  be  a  volunteer. 

2.  To  be  in  excellent  health  and  old  enough. 

8.     To  have  performed  two  years  of  obligatory  military 

service  in  France. 

4.     To  be  of  good  character. 

It  is  with  such  elements  that  we  are  going  to  consider 
the  organization  of  the  special  forces  necessary  to  the  occupa- 
tion of  our  colonies  and  to  the  formation  of  expedith.nary 

corps. 

The  principle  is  to  place  a  European  head  on  a  native  body. 
Colonial  Corps.— In  making  a  comparative  study  between 
foreign  troops  employed  in  the  colonies  and  the  French  col- 
oniaUroops,  it  seems  to  us,  at  first,  that  our  country  is  behind 
what  is  done  abroad.  But,  in  order  to  be  rational,  the  calcu- 
lation ought  to  be  made  for  each  of  our  colonies  in  compari- 
son with  a  foreign  colony  of  the  same  class.  It  would  be 
possible  to  compare,  for  example,  the  effectives  of  Algeria 
with  those  of  India;  those  of  Reunion  with  those  <.f  Mauritius 
or  of  Aden;  those  of  Sierra-Leone  with  those  of  Senegal. 

Tender  these  resti'ictions,  we  can  make  some  comparisons, 
but  thev  will  have  only  a  relative  value.  Thus,  when  speak- 
in-  of  the  effectives  maintained  by  the  English  in  the  col- 
onies, it  is  forgotten  that  they  have  2000  to  8000  men  at 
Aden,  and  as  many  at  Mauritius;  that  they  have  very  strong 
garrisons  at  Hong-Kong,  Singapore,  etc. 

The  effectives  of  the  English  army  in  India,  without 
counting  the  troops  of  the  rajahs,  are  in  the  proportion  of  1 
European  to  8  natives.  In  Burmah,  there  is  only  1  English- 
man to  4  foreigners.  The  recruitment  of  the  English  army  of 
India,  in  so  far  as  the  native  elements  are  concerned,  is  by 
voluntarv  enlistment.     The  contract  stipulates  that  those 


190  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

enlisted  may  be  employed  iu  all  parts  of  the  Indian  Empire 
and  even  outside. 

Holland  maintains  30,000  men  in  the  East  Indies,  of 
whom  14,000  are  Euro]»eans  and  16,000  natives,  or  40  j)er  cent 
of  the  one  and  54  of  the  other. 

In  the  Philippines,  Spain  maintains  12,000  men,  mostly 
Mahays  with  European  officers. 

With  us  the  troops  that  make  \\\\  the  colonial  service  are 
thu'S  constituted : 

13  regiments  of  infanterie  de  marine; 
2  regiments  of  ariitlerie  de  marine; 
5  companies  of  mechanics; 
1  corps  of  disciplinaires; 
1  company  of  fusiliers  de  discipline; 
10  native  regiments. 
To  these  must  be  added  detachments  of  engineers  and  of 
cavalry,  several  battalions  of  the  Foreign  Legion  furnished 
by  the  Department  of  War,  and  a  corps  of  colonial   (jen- 
darmes,  formed  of  elements  detached  from  the  companies  in 
France. 

Distribution  of  Effectives. — The  troops  of  the  Marine  in- 
tended for  colonial  service  comprise  Europeans  and  natives. 
We  are  especially  interested  to  know  the  relative  proportion 
of  each  of  these  groups.* 

The  Euro})ea.n  troops  serve  in  France  and  in  the  colonies. 

In  France,  there  are  S  regiments  of  infanlerie  de  )narine, 

2  regiments  of  artillerie  de  marine,  and  some  companies  of 

artificers  and  mechanics.     The  strength  is  about  1(5,000  uieu, 

the  infanterie  de  marine  numbering  12,000. 

*Economy  must  not  be  neglected  when  the  question  is  consid- 
ered of  increasing  the  number  of  native  soldiers,  in  order  to  propor- 
tionally diminish  the  number  of  European  soldiers.  The  calcula- 
tions of  M.  Fleury-Ravarin  show  that  a  European  soldier  costs  from 
2127  to  2540  fr. ;  a  Soudanese  tirailleur  costs  only  1189  fr. ;  a  Sene- 
galese, 980  fr. ;  a  native  of  Tong-King,  o50  fr. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  191 

These  regiments  constitute  the  depots  and  provide  for 
the  recruitment  and  relief  of  the  colonial  corps.  Constant 
changes  are  made  between  them  and  the  colonial  garrisons. 

In  the  colonies,  the  European  troops  are  variously 
distributed. 

The  infanterie  de  marine  has  in  Tong-King  and  Annam, 
the  Uth  and  10th  regiments,  each  of  12  companies;  in  Cochin- 
Chiua,  S  companies  of  the  11th  regiment;  in  New  Caledonia, 
()  companies  of  the  12th  regiment;  in  Madagascar,  the  13th 
regiment  of  12  companies;  in  Senegal,  a  battalion  of  4  com- 
panies; in  Keunion,  a  battalion  of  4  companies,  2  of  which 
are  detached  to  Madagascar;  in  Guiana,  a  battalion  of  4  com- 
panies; in  Martini(iue,  a  battalion  of  3  companies;  in  Guade- 
loupe, a  detachment;  in  Tahiti,  a  detachment:  in  all,  about 
9000  Europeans. 

The  artillerj'  and  the  companies  of  artillery  mechanics 
are  distributed  in  the  colonies  in  two  groups:  the  first  in 
Cochin-China  and  Oceania,  the  second  in  Africa  and  the 
Antilles. 

The  first  group  furnishes:  in  Tong-King  and  Annam,  1 
direction,  fi  batteries,  some  companies  of  mechanics,  and  some 
guides  and  pontouiers;  in  Cochin-China,  1  direction,  2  bat- 
teries, and  some  mechanics;  in  New  Caledonia,  1  direction,  1 
battery,  and  some  mechanics;  in  Tahiti,  a  detachment  and 
some  mechanics:  about  1400  Europeans. 

The  second  group  furnishes:  in  Senegal,  1  direction,  2  bat- 
teries, some  mechanics  and  guides;  in  the  Soudan,  1  direction, 
1  battery,  and  some  mechanics;  in  Martinique,  1  direction,  1 
battery,  and  some  mechanics;  in  Guadeloupe,  1  detachment; 
in  Guiana,  1  direction  and  1  detachment;  in  Madagascar,  1 
direction,  3  batteries,  and  some  mechanics;  in  Reunion,  1 
direction,  1  detachment,  and  some  mechanics;  about  1100 
Europeans. 


192  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

There  are  besides  a  corps  of  discipUnaires  and  a  company 
of  fusiliers  de  discipline  with  a  common  depot  at  the  ishuid  of 
Oleron.  The  corps  of  discipUnaires  furnishes  detachments 
to  Senegal  and  Madagascar;  the  company  of  fusiliers  de 
discipline  sends  a  detachment  to  Martinique:  in  all,  500 
Europeans. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  include  1500  Europeans  constitut- 
ing the  cadres  of  the  native  regiments.  We  thus  arrive  at  an 
approximate  total  of  14,000  Europeans  in  service  in  the  col- 
onies and  belonging  to  tlic  infanferie  and  arliUerie  de  marine 
and  if^  +ho  disciplinaires. 

The  European  element  is  also  represented  by  the  troops 
of  the  Foreign  Legion,  companies  of  engineers,  detachments 
of  cavalry  and  gendarmes,  making  about  2000  men.  Adding 
the  troops  loaned  by  the  Department  of  War  to  the  number 
of  troops  of  the  Marine,  a  total  of  10,000  men  is  reached. 

There  aie  10  regiments  of  native  troops:  1  regiment 
of  Senegalese  tirailleurs  of  12  companies;  1  regiment  of 
Soudanese  tirailleurs  of  10  companies;  1  regiment  of  An- 
namite  tirailleurs  of  12  companies;  2  regiments  of  Tong- 
King  tirailleurs  of  12  companies;  2  regiments  of  Toug 
King  tirailleuis  of  10  comjjanies;  1  colonial  mixed  regi 
ment,  in  Madagascar,  formed  of  Houssas  and  Senegalese,  of 
12  companies;  2  regiments  of  Malagasy  tirailleuis  <»f  12  rou\ 
panics:  in  all,  2;>,000  nativi's. 

It  is  well  to  note  that  there  are  native  troo^is  in  only 
three  of  our  colonies:  in  Senegal  and  the  Soudan.  Indo-China, 
and  Madag-ascai-.  It  may  l:e  said,  however,  that  the  propor 
tion  of  the  P^uropeaii  eh'inent  is  still  too  gi-eat  and  that  it 
ought  to  be  reduced. 

Formalion  nf  llie  ('onlingenls. — To  obtain  this  result  the 
])i-eparatory  scheme  would  be: 

1.     To  oiuanize  new  native  units. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  193 

2.  To  use  all  the  t-olouial  (H)ntin«;eiits  tuinislied  bv  the 
local  recruitment. 

3.  To  send  oulv  such  European  troops  as  are  strictly 
necessary. 

To  classify  these  ideas,  the  service  of  occnpafion  must  be 
distinguished  from  that  of  expedition. 

1.     Service  of  Occupation. 

The  troops  of  occupation  are  those  charged  with  the 
security  of  the  colony  and  forming  the  nucleus  of  the  forces 
intended  to  provide  for  its  defense  in  case  of  war. 

It  was  recently  suggested  to  take  the  company  of  //;- 
fanterie  de  marine  from  Guadeloupe,  and  M.  Gerville-Reache 
rightly  opposed  the  project.  As  in  Algeria,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  in  our  old  colonies  the  nuclei  of  European  troops  to 
suppress  troubles  before  which  the  (jendarmerie  and  local 
police  would  be  found  impotent.  The  last  anti-Semitic  move- 
ment in  Algeria  might  be  cited  in  support  of  this  theory.  In 
the  end  too  great  a  reduction  on  the  score  of  economy  might 
be  bitterh'  regretted. 

However,  the  service  of  occupation  ought  to  be  assured, 
in  greater  part,  by  the  local  troops  of  the  country  itself,  well 
supplied  with  European  ofUcers,  but  supported: 

1.  By  European  artillery; 

2.  By  gendarmes  in  sufficient  number; 

3.  By  bodies  of  European  infantry  in  countries  not 

yet  fully  pacified. 
In  Tong-King,  the  Soudan,  and  Madagascar,  European 
troops  will  be  needed  for  a  long  time  yet  and  in  sufficient 
number  to  conduct  a  campaign,  with  others  in  reserve,  to 
guard  against  eventualities.  In  the  Antilles,  Reunion,  New 
Caledonia,  Oochin-China,  and  Senegal  a  few  units  of  Euro- 
pean artillery  and  infantry  are  alone  necessary. 
i.{ 


194  Hiigiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

Ill  the  paeitied  colonies  the  gendarmes  ouj^ht,  indeed,  to 
constitute  the  pi*inei])al  force  to  guarantee  security  in  ordi- 
nary times.  There  is  already  a  company  of  gendarmerie  in 
Guadeloupe,  Martini(iu(%  Guiana,  Reunion,  and  New  Cale- 
donia, and  a  detachment  in  Tahiti.  The  gendarmes  are  excel- 
lent colonial  soldiers;  they  live  en  famille  and  take  care  of 
their  health;  it  is  a  tyi)e  upon  which  to  model  our  sendentary 
soldiers. 

2.  Expeditions  heijoiul  the  Sea  and  Depots. 
To  provide  this  service  and  at  the  same  time  to  furnish 
the  reliefs  and  constitute  the  necessary  cadres  for  the  numer- 
ous native  units,  there  must  be  a  solid  reserve  in  France, 
which,  wnth  the  elements  present  in  the  colonies,  shall  con- 
stitute the  colonial  army. 

^Ve  have  seen  with  what  elements  we  would  wish  to  con- 
stitute it;  a  word  uoav  about  its  organization  proper. 

In  France  there  are  as  many  gendarmes  as  are  wanted;  it 
would  probably  be  possible  to  have  as  many  Frenchmen  as 
could  be  desired  in  the  colonial  army  by  offering  sufficient 
advantages  to  attract  men  from  22  to  .'^2  years  of  age,  desir- 
ous of  enlisting  for  five  years  with  the  ])rivilege  of  reenlist- 
ing  two  or  three  times,  according  to  ag(^  by  offering  all  who 
have  a  taste  for  a  life  of  adventure  an  honorable  career  and 
sufficient  i>ay  to  jirevent  a  hesitation  on  their  iiart  to  em- 
bracing it. 

In  this  manner  the  countiy  would  have  a  body  of  elite 
and  the  means  of  developing  colonization. 

The  system  to  emi)loy  is  that  of  high  i)ay,  increasing 
with  each  reenlistment,  i ct ii-euieiit  aftei-  tifteeii  years'  service, 
and  concessions  of  land  and  eiiiployiiient  for  tliose  wlio  wish 
1o  remain  in  the  colonies. 

The  system  of  bo-mties  Uw  enlistment  and  it'c'Milisiment 
should  be  siiiiiiressed  as  soon  as  possible,      ll   is  wi-ong.      It 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  195 

"would  be  more  logical  to  base  the  jiecnniarv  advantages 
upon  an  increase  of  pay,  or,  better  still,  to  reserve  the  boun- 
ties for  the  time  when  the  men  leave  the  Army. 

The  bounty,  as  now  given,  is  a  source  of  abuse  and  de 
bauchery,  prejudical  to  health  and  discipline.     Many  soldiers 
sjiend  it  within  a  few  days;  sometimes  it  is  even  spent  before 
being  received,  because  shameless  speculators  advance  the 
money  with  usury. 

The  present  troops  of  the  Marine,  better  recruited,  in- 
creased, proliting  by  the  laws,  decrees,  and  regulations  which 
govern  the  land  forces,  especially  the  advantages  created  by 
the  law  of  the  cadres,  provided  with  all  the  accessory  ser- 
vices,* could  constitute  the  base  of  an  autonomous  colon inJ 
arnii/,  dividtnl  into  two  parts. 

MOBII^E    ORGANIZATIONS   OF    COLONIAL    INFANTRY  AND 
ARTILLERY. 

Their  role  should  be  to  furnish  the  colonial  garrisons 
with  oflticers  and  soldiers;  in  case  of  an  exj)edition,  they 
should  be  icady  to  go,  as  a  whole  or  by  fractions,  t(»  the  colo- 
nies. Should  there  be  a  contim^ntal  war,  they  would  consti- 
tute an  army  corps  to  cooperate  on  the  frontier  with  troops 
of  the  land  army.  Their  units  should  be  kept  complete;  the- 
officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  men  who  compose 
them  should  all  be  ready  to  take  the  tield. 

They  should  consist  of  two  divisions  of  infantry,  a  bri- 
gade of  artillery,  and  a  battalion  of  colonial  engineers. 

DISTRICT   ORGANIZATION. 

Their  rote  should  be  to  receive  the  officers,  non-commis 
sioned  officers,  and  soldiers  in  excess  in  the  mobile  organi- 

*The  colonial  army  would  necessarily  have  an  administrative 
service  and  a  health  service,  which  should  be  under  control  of  its 
commander.  The  abuses  resulting  from  the  separation  of  the  powers 
have  been  pointed  out  by  M.  Cabart-Danneville. 


190  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

zatious,  aud  e8[)ecially  all  sent  back  from  the  colonies,  a^ 
long-  as  their  state  of  health  requires.  These  district  organi- 
zations should  also  constitute  large  depots  for  the  mobile 
organizations;  they  might  be  charged  with  the  instructi(»n  of 
the  volunteer  recruits. 

There  could  be  taken  from  these  organizations  the  units 
maintained  at  Paris  and  those  which  the  Government  might 
consider  it  necessary  to  maintain  at  other  ]>oints — at  Lyons, 
for  example — not  only  in  time  of  peace,  but  even  during  the 
first  days  of  mobilization,  until  the  arrival  of  the  con- 
tingents of  the  territorial  army. 

The  district  organizations  should  be  stationed  in  prox 
imity  to  the  positions  they  would  occupy  at  the  time  of 
mobilization,  and,  in  case  of  continental  war,  they  would 
have  the  mission  of  assuring,  houi  the  first  hour,  the  defense 
of  the  military  ports  and  of  their  zones  of  action;  they  could 
continue  to  be  used  for  that  defense  and  to  serve  as  depot-'^ 
for  mobile  organizations.  Finally,  if  the  nature  of  the  war 
required,  they  could  furnish  the  elements  of  a  second  arniv 
cori)s  for  use  on  the  frontier. 

In  the  beginning,  the  mobile  organizations  would  re- 
ceive the  reserves  of  the  colonial  army;  the  district  organiza- 
tions would  receive  a  part  of  these  reserves  and  those  from 
the  naval  lists  not  utilized  by  the  Marine,  who  might  be 
turned  over  to  them  in  time  of  peace. 

Two  new  divisions  of  infantry,  a  brigade  of  artillery,  and 
a  battalion  of  colonial  engineers  "sxould  be  iii(lisi)onsable  for 
these  distiict  organizations. 

The  expePise  of  uiaintaiuing  such  a  colonial  army  in 
Fi-ance  in  time  of  j'eace,  it  is  true,  would  be  consideiable  if 
that  army  comprised  only  those  enlisted  for  fioni  f(uir  1o  ti\t' 
years  and  the  reenlisted;  but  it  must  be  renu  niber<'(l  that  eaili 
regiment  of  iiifdnhiii'  and  artillrrir  do  iininiif  includes  aboui 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  197 

one-fifth  of  its  stiengtli  as  Loinpaiiv  artisaus  or  meclianics 
without  rank — musicians,  clerks,  orderlies,  employees  of  va- 
rious kinds,  etc.  By  reason  of  the  nature  of  their  service, 
most  of  these  men  should  be  kept  in  France  for  several  con- 
secutive years,  and  should,  therefore,  be  exempt  during  this 
time  from  colonial  service.  It  would  be  the  same  for  the 
mobile  and  district  organization**  of  the  colonial  army. 

It  would  thus  l)e  indispensable,  in  order  to  make  all  Avho 
reenlist  available  for  colonial  service,  to  make  voluntary 
enlistments  of  three  jears  to  occupy  these  places.  Those 
enlisted  in  this  manner  will  furnish  material  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  colonial  army  and  excellent  men  for  reenlist- 
ment  at  the  expiration  of  their  term  of  service.  They  will 
take  the  field  with  their  organizations,  in  a  continental  war^ 
etc.,  but  they  should  not  be  sent  to  the  colonies  until  they 
have  reached  the  age  of  22.  The  principle  that  onl.y  fully 
developed  men  should  be  sent  to  the  colonies  will  not  be 
violated  by  the  adoption  of  this  mode  of  recruiting,  which 
can  work  concurrently  with  that  of  voluntary  enlistments 
for  four  and  five  years. 

Before  enumerating  the  advantages  of  the  system  pro- 
posed, it  is  proper  to  recall  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  infanterie  de  marine. 

Different  Organizations  of  the  Infanterie  de  Marine. — At 
its  origin,  the  infanterie  de  marine,  instituted  by  decree  of  the 
IJrth  of  May,  1831,  comprised  two  regiments  having  58  com- 
panies in  the  colonies  and  6  depot  companies  in  France,  with 
an  effective  total  of  2.3.S  officers  and  4000  men. 

Successively  reorganized  by  the  ordinances  of  the  20th 
of  November,  1838,  the  7th  of  November,  1843,  and  the  21st 
of  March,  1847;  the  order  of  the  24th  of  August,  1848;  the  de- 
cree of  the  31st  of  August,  18.54;  the  imperial  decision  of  the 
8th  of  Januarv.  1850;  the  decrees  of  the  2()th  of  November, 


198  Ili/giene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

ISW),  the  2(;tli  of  Janiiaiy,  ISSO,  and  the  1st  of  March,  1S<)0; 
this  corps  to-day  includes  more  than  KWIO  officers,  lio.OdO  Eu- 
ropean troops,  and  28,00(»  native  troops.  The  Euro|K-an 
troops  comprise  185  companies  of  infanterie  de  marine,  of 
which  65  are  in  the  colonies.  The  native  troops  comprise 
182  companies. 

These  various  acts  of  organization,  which  do  not  include 
those  relating  to  the  native  corps,  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups:  the  first,  from  18:^1  to  1854;  the  second,  from  1851  to 
1897.  The  principle  of  organization  is  different  for  each  of 
these  periods. 

In  the  tirst  period  it  was  possible  to  supply,  well  or 
badly,  the  colonial  relief.  The  conditions  of  recruitment 
were  very  different  from  those  of  to-day,  notably  since  1868: 
non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  were  almost  exclu- 
sively volunteer  recruits  or  substitutes — that  is  to  say,  re- 
cruits easy  to  instruct,  or  old  soldiers,  jdaced  in  organiza- 
tions W'hose  non-commissioned  officers  had  repeatedly  served 
in  the  colonies. 

With  a  personnel  thus  composed  and  contingents  avail- 
able for  colonial  service,  it  was  possible,  almost  immediately 
after  the  call  of  a  class,  to  have  at  the  dejx'd  the  same  num- 
ber of  companies  as  in  the  colonies.  When  it  was  impossible 
to  relieve  them,  men  were  left  in  the  colonies  live  or  six  years, 
as  was  the  case  in  the  La  Plata  ex[»edition,  the  war  of  the 
Crimea,  and  the  exjiedition  to  Mexico.  The  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  privates  passed  seven  years  with  tlu'  col- 
ors; many  reenlisted  or  served  as  substitutes  in  the  corj.s  in 
the  colonies  themselves. 

The  period  of  colonial  service  was  foui-  years;  it  was  thus 
only  necessary  t(^  relieve  a  (piarter  of  the  garrisons  bi-ycuid 
the  sea  each  year;  those  who  returned  to  France  on  account 
of  disease  were  fewer  in  a  personnel  composed  of  fully  devel- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  199 

oped  men  and  old  soldiers.  Moreover,  the  large  ett'ective 
strength  in  each  colony  allowed  great  latitude;  vacancies 
were  tilled  only  once  a  year,  at  the  time  of  the  relief  of  the 
companies,  which  took  place  in  the  most  favorable  season 
according  to  colony,  and  in  accordance  with  the  wise  provis- 
ions of  the  royal  ordinance  of  the  25th  of  January,  1828.  The 
causes  for  changes  were  much  less  than  they  are  to-day. 

In  the  second  period,  regiments  replaced  the  depots  in 
the  ports  and  constituted  the  central  portions;  moreover,  the 
advantage  of  having  only  light  troops  in  the  Marine  being 
definitely  recognized,  the  regiments  received  the  armament 
of  the  chassevrs  a  pied. 

In  reality,  the  decree  of  the  :Ust  of  August,  185-4,  organ- 
ized the  Marine  as  it  existed  up  to  1890.  But  the  proportion 
of  70  companies  in  France  to  50  in  the  colonies,  which  was 
sufficient  at  the  time  the  decree  was  promulgated  to  insure 
the  regular  relief  of  the  companies  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  effectives  beyond  the  sea,  was  so  no  longer  when  it  be- 
came necessary  to  organize,  with  the  resources  of  the  central 
portions,  expeditionary  battalions  for  the  Crimea,  Greece, 
Indq-China,  etc.  It  thus  happened  that  in  1857  there  were 
companies  in  the  Antilles  which  had  left  France  six  years 
before. 

The  need  of  large  detachments  in  the  Extreme-Orient 
becoming  felt  more  and  more,  it  was  necessary  to  seek  the 
resources  which  the  metropolis  could  not  furnish  in  the 
garrisons  of  the  colonies  where  order  seemed  definitely 
established. 

In  1859,  with  a  view  to  remedying  this  troublesome 
state  of  affairs,  the  number  of  companies  in  France  was 
increased  and  the  number  of  companies  in  the  colonies  was 
reduced;  the  strength  was  I2,f>18  men,  of  whom  8578  were 
in  France,  and  4035  in  the  colonies.     The  ex])editionary  com- 


200  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

])aiiies  were  taken  t'loiii  Fiance;  and  if  one  ooes  back  to  all 
that  has  been  done  with  this  reduced  effective  sti-eugth,  and 
compares  it  with  what  is  done  at  the  present  time,  one  is 
again  impressed  with  this  truth:  "Only  seasoned  troops  can 
resist  colonial  climates;  recruits  melt  like  snow." 

In  the  first  years  which  followed  the  reorganization  of 
1S51),  the  conditions  of  colonial  service  were  very  good:  the 
men  sent  from  France  were  instructed  and  fully  developed, 
the  organizations  were  solid. 

The  decree  of  the  26th  of  November,  1809,  had  the  object, 
while  assuring  the  regular  working  of  the  central  portions 
with  reference  to  the  reijuirements  of  our  new  colonial  gar- 
risons, of  harmonizing  the  organization  of  the  army  with 
the  new  condition  of  the  law  of  1868,  which  reduced  to  five 
years  the  time  the  men  of  the  different  classes  were  to  pass 
with  the  colors.  The  infanterie  de  marine  was  composed  of 
140  companies,  with  a  total  effective  of  16,646  men — 8703 
in  France,  and  7943  in  the  colonies. 

Thus  there  was  maintained  nearly  one  man  in  France 
to  one  in  the  colonies. 

This  proportion  was  far  from  being  sufficient.  By  rea- 
son of  losses  of  all  kinds  and  sick-leaves  from  the  depots^ 
there  was  a  continual  deficiency  of  men,  at  the  i)orts,  avail- 
able for  colonial  service.  Thus  the  origin  of  all  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  infanlcrie  de  marine  in  ])roviding  the  colonial 
reli(^f  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  organization  of  1869. 

At  a  given  moment,  the  infanterie  de  marine  could  not  re- 
lieve th(^  gairisons  outside  of  Euroj)e  in  a  suitable  manner, 
because  of  the  dis])ro])oition  betAveen  the  nund)er  of  com- 
l>auics  nuiintained  in  France  and  the  number  to  be  furnished 
the  colonies. 

This  disproportion  was  still  fui-ther  increased  by  the 
reduction  to  two  vears  of  the  tiujc  of  seivice  in  Cochin  Thina 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  201 

and  Senegal,  by  the  streugtli  given  to  the  garrison  of  New 
Caledonia,  and  by  the  maintenance  of  a  detachment  in 
Toiig-King. 

The  decree  of  1880  was  the  first  to  admit  the  principle 
established  by  experience,  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  in 
France  at  least  a  company  and  a  half  in  order  to  maintain 
one  in  the  colonies.  In  accordance  with  that  idea,  it  in- 
creased the  number  of  companies  of  infanterie  cle  marine  to 
170,  with  103  in  France  and  73  in  the  colonies,  and  an  effect- 
ive total  of  18,758  men:  11,080  in  France  and  7072  in  the 
colonies. 

This  proportion,  which  should  never  have  been  dis- 
turbed, was  not  long  maintained.  The  constant  increase  of 
the  colonial  garrisons,  without  corresponding-  measures  in 
France,  and  the  creation  of  a  certain  number  of  native 
corps,  the  cadres  of  which  were  furnished  by  the  infanterie 
de  marine,  rapidly  destroyed  the  proportion  laid  down  by  the 
decree  of  1880. 

The  decree  of  the  1st  of  ^March,  1890,  making  two  regi- 
ments from  one  of  the  infanterie  de  marine,  was  especially 
with  the  object  of  applying  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
organization  of  modern  infantry,  and  the  creation  of  brigades 
in  the  ports.  At  present,  the  companies  maintained  in 
France  have  an  effective  of  12,234  men;  the  colonial  garri- 
sons, in  the  05  companies  and  the  cadres  of  the  numerous 
native  regiments,  comprise  more  than  12,000  European 
troops. 

The  situation  is  i)recarious,  and  it  is  time  to  apply  a  rem- 
edy, if  it  is  not  desired  to  see  those  whose  principal  mission 
is  to  guard  and-  defend  our  colonies,  which  they  moreover 
helped  to  conquer,  succumb  to  their  troubles. 

Advantages  of  the  System  Proposed. — It  does  not  seem  nec- 
essary to  insist  upon  the  advantages  which  would  result  to 


202  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

tlie  cuviuti y,  and  also  to  tlu^  otticeis,  uou-couiinitssioued  offi- 
cers, and  soldiers,  by  the  adoption  of  the  project  we  have  pro 
posed  for  the  organization  of  the  colonial  army. 

These  advantages  may  be  briefly  summarized:  the  pro- 
tection or  defense  of  our  colonies  assured  under  all  circum- 
stances; the  protection  of  our  military  ports  and  their  ap- 
proaches, at  the  time  of  declaration  of  war,  from  an  unex- 
pected attack  of  an  audacious  enemy;  the  provision  of  a 
valuable  support,  in  case  of  necessity,  to  the  general  defense 
of  the  territory,  by  furnishing  two  elite  army  corps. 

This  organization  would  be  of  great  use  if  the  neigh- 
boring continental  powers  should  again  mass  troops  upon 
our  frontiers  and  we  ourselves  should  be  forced  to  increase 
our  effectives  by  the  restoration  of  the  fourth  battalion  of 
the  infantry  regiments  and  by  the  creation  of  the  20th  army 
corps. 

As  far  as  private  interests  are  concerned,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  colonial  army  in  two  large  subdivisions  would 
have  the  advantage  of  furnishing  all  the  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  necessary  to  the  native  troops;  it 
would  permit  everj'  overworked  soldier,  without  change  of 
career,  to  continue  to  serve  in  his  own  arm  with  his  comrades. 
The  advantages  would  be  especially  great  for  the  officers, 
worn  out  to-day  by  the  colonial  sei-vice,  as  shown  by  the 
losses  they  sustain.  ^loreover,  exchanges  could  be  exten 
sively  authorized  Ix'tween  the  elements  of  the  two  forma- 
tions, as  they  should  also  lie  among  the  offictMs  of  the  lanil 
army  and  those  of  the  colonial  army. 

The  relief  of  the  officei-s  would  be  nioi'e  (Mpiitable.  The 
actual  situation  is  truly  ciitical  and  is  aggravated  since  our 
taking  possession  of  Madagascar.  In  ISO,"),  there  were  Sl:> 
otticers  in  France  and  (JoO  in  the  colonies;  140(5  non-commis- 
sioned officers  in  France  and  14S4  in  the  colonies.     At  pres- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  203 


ent,  we  count  775  officers  iu  Fmuce,  against  1201  in  the 
colonies  or  in  Crete,  and  1-433  nou-coniniissioned  officers  iu 
France  against  201>2  in  the  colonies  or  in  (^rete. 

Ill  these  conditions,  the  length  of  service  in  France 
is  eighteen  months  for  colonels,  twenty-three  months  for 
lieutenant-colonels,  sixteen  for  chiefs  of  battalion,  eighteen 
for  captains,  eighteen  for  lieutenants  and  sub-lieutenants, 
fifteen  for  adjutants,  eighteen  for  sergeant-majors,  and  six- 
teen for  sergeants. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  have  proportional  retire- 
ment after  fifteen  years'  service;  the  officers  wait  twenty-five 
years— that  is  to  say,  they  are  worn  out  by  the  colonial  life 
at  the  moment  when  they  should  be  able  to  take  a  well- 
earned  repose.  If  promotion  were  regular,  there  would  be 
less  complaint;  but  it  is  not:  assimilation  of  rank  does  not 
exist  in  the  infanterie  de  marine,  as  it  does  in  all  the  other 
corps  in  France  and  in  all  European  armies. 

The  scheme  of  M.  Cabart-Danneville;  which  provides  a 
officers  in  France  to  2  in  the  colonies,  would  be  a  relief;  but 
the  remedy  would  not  be  sufficient.  The  percentage  of 
mortality  of  the  officers,  notwithstanding  their  age  and 
greater  comfort,  is  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  the  soldiers. 
This  supports  what  we  have  said  in  regard  to  tellurism;  no 
person  escapes.  Tellurism  has  no  respect  for  rank,  and  if  the 
officers  die  as  often  as  their  men  who  go  to  the  colonies  too 
young,  it  is  because  thoy  go  too  often  and  stay  too  long  in  the 
bad  conditions. 

To  lessen  the  hardships  of  the  colonial  service,  it  has 
been  proi)Osed  to  send  officers  of  the  laud  army.  That  would 
be  a  great  mistake. 

The  colonial  army  ought  to  suffice  for  its  task,  for  all  its 
duties.  It  would  not  be  just  to  admit  the  princii)le  that,  on 
the  score  of  economy,  officers  of  the  land  army  could  be 


204  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

detached  to  the  colouies,  there  to  occupy  places  most  often 
piivih'<;ed,  and,  after  a  stay  of  two  or  three  years,  reenter 
their  former  cori)s,  benefiting  by  the  rights  of  promotion  or 
tlie  Legion  (Thnnueur,  which  are  only  rarely  accorded  to  the 
officers  who  consecrate  their  whole  career  to  this  service.  It 
would  open  the  door  to  favor.  As  we  have  said,  let  ex- 
changes among  the  officers  of  the  two  armies  be  considerably 
facilitated — nothing  more:  the  profit  will  then  be  for  all,  and 
for  the  country. 

Moreover,  it  is  noit  true  that  the  special  competency  nec- 
essary in  the  officers  who  serve  in  the  Trojjics  is  accpiired 
very  quickly.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted,  with  M. 
Fleury-Kavarin,  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  having  in  our 
colonial  possessions  officers  of  very  special  aptitude  and 
education.  ''We  should  have  a  colonial  rndre  strongly  enough 
constituted  to  have  no  need  of  aid  fi'om  the  metroi)olitan 
army;  the  meshes  ought  to  be  sufficiently  tight  to  ])revent 
the  passage  of  any  and  every  body."  Finally,  there  ought  to 
be  enrolled  in  France  a  sufficient  projiortion  of  the  ett'ective 
strength  of  the  organizations,  so  that  a  cry  of  alarm  could 
be  uttered  without  the  fear  of  being  taxed  with  exaggeration. 
Regiments  which  exist  only  in  skeleton  form  possess  no  more 
than  the  exterior  appearance  of  a  military  f(U'ce. 

Leaves  at  the  end  of  a  campaign  and  the  sick-leaves, 
frecpieut  among  the  reenlisted  men  often  attacked  by  the  dis- 
eases of  the  troiiical  countries,  nmke  the  regimental  effect- 
ives literally  melt  away. 

Certain  regiments  have  at  intervals,  an  almost  laugha- 
ble strength,  on  account  of  the  vacancies  ma<le  by  the  colo- 
nial reliefs.  The  jiii^paration  of  the  tool  indispensable  to  a 
nation  wishing  1o  Iiave  a  vast  colonial  em])ii-e  must  neces- 
sarily be  the  creation  of  a  colonial  army.  ^Vith  oui-  system 
(if  li\  ing  from  hand  to  montli,  making  the  best  of  a  difficultv 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  205 

whieli  presents  itself,  we  have  bad  to  deplore  too  great  a 
mortality;  it  should  be  time  to  reduce  it. 

§  III.  Departure  for  the  Colonies. 
The  time  of  departiu-  from  France  aud  also  of  arriving 
in  the  colony  is  not  indifferent.  As  far  as  possible,  the  men 
should  be  made  to  pass  from  one  climate  to  the  other  only  at 
a  season  when  the  temperature  is  about  equal  in  the  two 
countries.  The  sending  of  the  contingents  should  be  so  cal- 
culated that  the  arrivals  could  take  place  before  winter. 

In  the  Northern  hemisphere  (Senegal,  the  Antilles,  Indo- 
China),  the  most  favorable  time  for  the  changes  would  be 
from  January  to  March;  a  little  before  that  for  Indo-China 
—from  November  to  January,  for  example. 

For  Tong-King,  the  average  duration  of  the  voyage  is 
forty  days;  by  leaving  France  during  the  last  half  of  Octo- 
ber, the  passage  through  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Red  Sea 
will  be  made  at  a  favorable  time;  the  soldier  arrives  at  his 
destination  in  December-that  is,  in  full  winter,  and  during 
the  months  of  that  season-  which  remain  he  will  be  able  to 
settle  down  and  become  gradually  accustomed  to  the  climate. 
In  Reunion,  Madagascar,  Guiana,  and  Oceania,  by  rea- 
son of  itlie  reversal  of  the  seasons,  the  best  months  to  land 
would  be  May  June,  and  July. 

Reciprocally,  the  return  to  France  should  take  place  in 
summer  or  in  spring;  but  this  condition  is  very  difficult  to 
fulfill,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  sick,  rei)atriated  for 
urgent  reasons. 

The  influence  of  a  bad  season  upon  the  health  of  those 

arriving  has  been  too  often  shown  by  disastrous  examples. 

In  time  of  epidemic,  every  arrival  of  new  troops  must 

be  suspended  under  pain  of  exposing  the  new-comers   to 

almost  certain  death.    This  is  particularly  important  in  case 


206  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

of  yellow  fever,  for  the  uewly  :uriv«^d  men  are  es])erial]y  apt 
to  contract  it. 

The  men,  after  being  examined  and  vaccinated  or  revac- 
cinated,  should  always  be  furnished,  l)efore  embarking,  with 
their  colonial  clothing.  The  hygienic  solicitude  of  the  chief 
of  detachment  should  be  exercised  during  the  voyage,  when 
putting  into  ports,  and  upon  arrival. 

His  first  care,  before  depariure.  will  be  to  assure  himself 
that  each  man  has  a  place  to  sleej)  and  has  a  hammock;  also 
that  he  knows  Iiow  to  hang  n]»  his  nautical  bed  in  a  manner 
to  avoid  accidents.  Then  he  will  make  a  careful  inspection 
of  the  linen  and  clothing  of  tlie  soldiers,  to  see  if  all  is  in 
good  condition. 

During  the  roi/age,  bodily  cleanliness  and  the  cleanliness 
of  the  clothing  will  b(^  an  object  of  constant  watchfulness. 
The  chief  of  detachment  will  see  that  the  regulation  allow- 
ance of  soft  water  for  the  troojis  aboard  is  regularly  dis- 
tributed for  their  personal  use  and  for  the  washing  of  their 
linen.  He  will  take  counsel  with  the  surgeon  aboard  in  case 
it  is  necessary  to  destroy  or  disinfect  the  clothing  of  sick  or 
diseased  men.  He  will  also  watch  the  prejiaration  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  food. 

A\'hile  on  board,  some  occupation  for  the  soldiers  is  not 
a  bad  thing;  considering  their  inexperience  of  life  on  the  sea, 
some  explanation  might  be  given  in  regard  to  the  regions 
traversed. 

\Vhen  the  detachment  nrrirrs  dl  ils  ilesliini/iun.  certaiu 
l'i-e(  aut  ions  are  indisjiensable.  The  men  will  descend  into 
the  boats  which  are  to  conduct  them  to  land;  but  the  haver- 
sacks, ai-ms,  and  baggage  should  be  lowered  sejiarately,  so 
as  to  avoid  accidents. 

>;    I  \'.      '/'////('  of  Stjjoiirn. 
There  is  no  fixed  duration  of  the  icsistance  of  the  svs- 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  207 

tern  in  inter-tropical  countries.  There  are  jjrreat  individual 
diiferences,  greater  still  according  to  country. 

It  is  known,  nevertheless,  that  in  Cochin-China  and 
Senegal  the  improved  conditions  in  (juartering  the  troops 
and  the  sanitation  of  the  posts  have  contributed  to  abate  the 
percentage  of  mortality,  even  more  than  the  diminution  of 
tln^  time  of  sojourn. 

Actually,  the  duration  of  colonial  service  is  fixed  as 
follows: 

Reenlisteil  Enlisted 

Colonies.  for  More  than  for 

Reenlisted.  3  Years.  '.i  Years. 

Antilles,  Reunion,  New 

Caledonia,  Tahiti 4  years.       8  years.       2  years. 

Indo-China,  Madagascar, 

Reunion,  Senegal,  Guiana. 3  years.       2  years.       2  years. 
Soudan,  B^nin 1  year.         1  year.         1  3-ear. 

Doctor  Navarre  finds  this  idea  of  relief  at  a  fixed  date  too 
administrative.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that,  considering 
the  actual  conditions  of  organization  it  imposes,  a  uniform 
sojourn  in  the  colonies  would  be  better. 

By  carefully  examining  the  study  we  have  made  of  mor 
tal  diseases,  the  influence  of  the  time  of  sojourn  upon  cer- 
tain affections  is  apparent;  bilious  hematuria,  sun-stroke, 
and  hepatitis  attack  a  greater  proportion  of  old  than  of 
young  soldiers,  and  strike  more  men  at  the  end  than  at  the 
beginning  of  their  colonial  life.  Could  this  be  due  to  the 
alcoholic  habits  unfortunately  contracted  by  too  many 
soldiers,  and  which  are  sure  to  increase  with  age?  That  the 
alcoholic  infiucnce  upon  the  genesis  of  these  affections  is 
preponderant  is  too  probable  to  admit  of  doubt. 

If  the  new  basis  of  recruitment  which  we  have  pointed 
out  were  adopted,  if  there  w^ere  chosen  for  the  colonies  only 
men  fully  developed  and  the}'  were  surrounded  by  all  desira- 
ble conditions,  it  is  certain  that  it  would  be  ])ossible  to  com- 


208  Hygiene  of  Uie  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

meuoe  increasing  the  duration  of  the  colonial  sojourn,  and, 
according-  to  the  colonies,  to  fix  it  at  five  years  in  the  An- 
tilles, Reunion,  and  Oceania;  at  three  years  in  Indo-China, 
Madagascar,  Guiana,  and  Senegal;  at  eighteen  months  in  the 
Soudan  and  B^nin. 

In  case  health  should  continue  excellent,  the  sojourn 
could  be  prolonged  in  the  three-year  colonies  until  the 
accomplishment  of  a  fourth  or  fifth  year,  without  ever  pass- 
ing the  latter  limit;  the  human  system,  in  fact,  needs  to 
renew  its  strength  in  the  temperate  climates  after  passing  a 
certain  time  in  the  torrid  climates,  if  it  is  not  wished  to  wear 
it  out,  and  some  day  have  it  succumb  to  the  first  attack. 

Thus,  after  a  maximum  sojourn  of  five  years  in  the  colo 
nies,  and  beforo,  if  necessary,  every  soldiin-  who  has  not  set- 
tled in  the  colony,  whether  officer  or  man,  should  return  to 
France,  should  go  on  leave,  and  then  pass,  if  still  in  the  ser- 
vice, into  the  district  organizations.  There  he  would  remain 
the  necessary  time,  returning  to  the  mobile  organizations, 
ready  for  a  new  period  of  service,  only  when  his  health  per- 
mitted. Sending  troops  to  a  very  healthy  colony,  like  New 
Caledonia,  after  they  have  served  in  a  less  favoral)le  zone 
like  the  Soudan,  for  example,  would  |)ermit  an  alternation 
of  the  burdens.  This  would  avoid  imposing  upon  anyone  in 
succession,  or  with  an  interval  of  only  a  year  or  two,  periods 
of  service  in  an  unheaKhy  place. 

This  .system  is,  uutreovei-,  in  use  in  the  case  of  our  colo- 
nial functionaries  and  works  well.  In  default  of  a  better  one, 
we  should  have  recourse  to  it. 

\\"\\\  we  ever  be  able  to  go  farther  in  this  way?  Will  it 
ever  be  })Ossible  to  make  our  sohliers  i-euiain  in  the  colonies, 
like  the  P]nglish  in  India,  foi-  a  |>eriod  of  twelve  years? 

In  the  present  state  of  oui-  (trgaiii/ation,  it  is  difficult  to 
answei-  in  (he  affirmative;  but  we  have  an  inmost  convictictn 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics.  209 

that  when  Ave  place  our  colonial  battalions  of  Toug-Kiug  and 
Madagascai-  in  the  health  cities,  whence  they  will  descend 
only  temporarily — when  we  surround  them  with  every  de- 
sirable comfort — nothing-  will  oppose  us  in  imitating  our 
neighbors. 

There  exist  in  our  new  possessions  vast  regions  inhab- 
ited by  warlike  i)opulatious,  xery  jealous  of  their  independ- 
ence, who  still  regard  us  as  enemies,  and  who  for  a  long 
time  yet,  perhaps,  w'ill  not  resign  themselves  to  our  domina- 
tion. Among  them  is  naturally  the  place  for  those  groups, 
imitating  the  Roman  colonies,  which  M.  Brunet  has  proposed 
to  constitute,  and  which  would  be  formed  of  old  soldiers  pro- 
vided with  lands  in  recompense  for  their  services,  preserving, 
moreover,  a  military  organization,  and  ready  in  case  of  need, 
under  regularly  appointed  chiefs,  to  defend  their  property 
and  our  flag,  with  arms  in  hand. 

In  France,  proper  attention  is  far  from  being  given  to 
the  utilization  of  heights  for  the  troops;  we  believe,  however, 
that  it  is  the  most  important  point  in  the  iiroblem  of  colo- 
nization. The  solution  is  to  affirm  the  ]iossibility  of  individ- 
ual acclimatization,  and  at  the  same  time  to  definitely  settle 
the  question  of  the  colonial  army,  by  assuring  to  all  whom  it 
ought  to  contain,  the  primordial  condition  of  every  individ- 
ual, as  of  every  institution — Life. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Our  work  would  have  been  vain,  and  might  have  been 
considered  aimless,  if,  after  having  enumerated  the  deaths 
and  enunciated  the  principal  causes  of  mortality  among  our 
colonial  soldiers,  we  had  made  no  effort  to  seek  efficacious 
remedies. 

Hygienic  statistics  relative  to  service  in  the  Tropics  have 
been  given  before  this,  in  figures  varving  between  wide  ex- 


210  Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  the  Tropics. 

tiemes;  we  have  readied  a  just  mean,  which,  far  from  allay- 
ing terror,  has  dissipated  uncertaiuty  by  reassuring  the  pes- 
simists. P^or  the  first  time,  we  have  arrived  at  conclusions 
based  upon  positive  data,  and,  without  caring  for  reflections 
which  are  too  optimistic,  we  have  told  the  truth. 

The  number  of  deaths  pointed  out  is  accurate,  since  it 
has  been  drawn  from  the  most  authentic  sources.  The  aver- 
age effective  strength  has  been  taken  as  a  basis  of  estima- 
tion, and  it  would  be  difficult,  with  the  i»recautions  employed, 
to  have  more  exact  information. 

In  seeking  to  establish  the  causes  of  mortality,  and  to 
make  out  the  proportion  for  each  cause,  gaps  were  to  be 
feared;  but,  in  comjuiring  the  figures  obtained  with  those 
of  our  predecessors,  for  a  century,  we  have  found  a  reassur- 
ing conformity. 

The  welcon^e  given  our  first  works  has  shown  us  that 
we  have  been  understood  and  that  our  manner  of  seeinc  and 
interpreting  facts  has  been  appreciated. 

It  remained  for  us  to  show  the  route  to  follow  to  spare 
the  lives  of  our  soldiers;  that  is  the  task  we  have  just  ful- 
filled. In  approaching  this  last  work.  a})prehensions  have 
not  been  wanting.  It  was  necessary  to  say  nothing  wliich 
liad  not  been  studied,  long  thought  of,  and  profoundly  re- 
flected upon;  for  a  false  indication  might  have  nu'lancholy 
^consequences. 

What  we  have  written  has  been  lived;  we  have  seen 
what  we  relate,  and  the  added  reflections  are  stamped  with 
Jlie  frankest  im])artiality. 

Our  best  recompense  will  be  to  have  done  much  good,  if 
attention  is  paid  to  what  we  have  written. 

Among  the  hygienic  measures  proposed,  there  are  some 
which  depend  ujiou  I  he  man  himself,  who  ought  to  be  power- 
fully aimed   f(i!-  Ills  snuggle  against    the  ti'dpical    climate. 


Hygiene  of  the  Soldier  in  fJie  Tropics.  211 

There  are  ollieis  Avbieh  depend  upon  those  in  command. 
Tliose  in  command  can  never  give  too  much  attention  to 
(jiiestions  of  colonial  liygiene,  a  Ivnowledge  of  which  is  as 
indisjiensable  to  tliem  as  that  of  military  strategy.  Before 
assuring  victory  to  our  arms,  is  it  not  necessary  to  secure  life 
for  those  who  are  to  give  it? 

It  is  primarily  from  the  administration,  and  still  more 
from  the  jtublic  powers,  that  one  has  the  right  to  expect 
many  efforts  and  great  sacrifices.  All  the  (piestions  relative 
to  the  recruitment  and  organization  of  the  colonial  troops, 
to  their  (piartering,  ecpiipment,  and  alimentation,  to  the 
f^res  required  by  their  state  of  health,  in  peace  as  in  war, 
are  so  many  problems  whose  prompt  solution  is  imposed 
upon  the  representatives  of  the  country. 

We  have  jjointed  out  the  means  best  calculated,  in  our 
opinion,  to  hasten  the  rc^alization  of  these  several  desiderata; 
it  is  for  others  to  act  now.  ^lay  the  statesmen  understand 
the  grandeur  of  the  roJe  devolved  upon  their  ]iatriotism! 

If  France  Inis  hitherto  given  much  gold  for  the  effica- 
cious expansion  of  her  colonial  domain,  she  has  also  been 
largely  prodigal  of  the  blood  of  her  children  I 

The  hour  has  come  to  change  all  this.  P^nough  corpses 
have  been  thrown,  sometimes  uselessly  and  without  measure, 
into  the  balance  under  juetext  of  making  it  incline  in  our 
favor;  exjjenses  will  not  be  useless,  if  their  (  nd  is  t<^  preserve 
lives. 

The  work  of  national  colonization  will  jtrosper  only  the 
better  for  these  expenses,  and  the  country  will  be  reconciled 
to  them,  without  counting  the  subsidies  exacted  from  it, 
when  it  knows  that  in  addition  to  the  price  of  its  glory,  it  is 
7)aying  the  r;uisoni  of  the  best  of  its  blood. 

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Cavalry.  The  importance  of  a  knowledge  of  Military 
Hygiene  on  the  part  of  officers  in  command  of  troops 
has  long  been  recognized,  and  was  painfully  empha- 
sized during  the  war  with  Spain  by  the  heavy  losses 
of  many  volunteer  organizations  that,  remaining  in 
home  camps,  did  not  see  a  hostile  Hag  or  hear  a  hos- 
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